UYGHUR LANGUAGE AND CULTURE UNDER THREAT IN UYGHUR REGION

Michael Dillon - CENTRAL ASIA - CAUCASUS ANALYST

Wednesday/August 14, 2002

Recent reports suggest that large numbers of books and journals in the Uyghur language have been burned by the Chinese authorities in Xinjiang. Uyghur RegionUniversity has also announced that it will no longer teach the majority of its courses through the medium of the Uyghur language, raising concerns about the long term future of this Turkic language and its culture. The latest campaign affects all Uyghurs, not solely the militants, and implicitly categorizes the Uyghur language as disloyal. This repression may be successful in the short-term, but only risks increasing Uyghur dissatisfaction in the longer term.

BACKGROUND: Uyghur, the language of the largest ethnic group in Xinjiang, is a Turkic language closely related to Uzbek and less closely to Kazakh and Kyrgyz. It is written in a modified Arabic script which helps to identify its speakers as Muslims, although a Latin script also exists and was used during the 1970s and 1980s. It has been the main language of instruction in many schools in Uyghur Regionalongside Chinese which has increasingly become predominant. Uyghur and Chinese are not related in any way and Uyghurs have to learn Chinese as a foreign language. In the region's main university, Uyghur RegionUniversity, Uyghur and Chinese were both used as languages of instruction until a government decision in May 2002 decreed that the vast majority of courses would be taught only in Chinese. Uyghur students have for many years had to make the difficult decision of whether to study in Chinese or their own language but this ruling deprives them even of that choice. The university authorities argue that there are no suitable text books in Uyghur, especially for science courses, and that it is vital for all students in Uyghur Regionto be able to operate in Chinese to a high level, whatever their ethnic origin, but the ruling will be seen by many Uyghurs as an attack on their culture by the Han Chinese who are still a minority in Xinjiang.

Reports of the burning of books written in Uyghur have come from a number of different sources. In June 2002, the Kashghar Uyghur Press is reported to have burned copies of A Brief History of the Huns and Ancient Uyghur Literature, books by Turghun Almas who died last year and which had previously been banned because they were considered to support separatist ideas. Many copies of Ancient Uyghur Craftsmanship which describes local crafts including silk weaving, carpet making and carpentry were also destroyed. Censorship of other books was stepped up and the publication of many other volumes was cancelled. During June, similar books were confiscated from the official Xinhua bookshops, from school and college libraries and even from individual schoolchildren and students in all the counties of Kashghar Prefecture. Eyewitnesses reported that books collected from No. 1 Secondary School in Kashghar City were piled up and burned.

IMPLICATIONS: The destruction of these books is part of an ideological campaign being waged against separatism by the Chinese authorities. At political meetings in Kashghar in June, hundreds of activists were briefed and trained before being sent out to villages and schools throughout the region. Book burning and propaganda meetings took place in the counties of Maralbashi, Yengisar, Karghalik and Yopurga and the towns of Yarkant and Payzawat as well as Kashghar. Schoolchildren were brought in to classrooms even though the summer holidays had started and other activities were abandoned to make time for political meetings. Booklets, pamphlets and audio tapes produced by the government and denouncing separatism and illegal religious activities were distributed in huge numbers.

Wang Lequan, Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party's Uyghur Regionregional committee, and the most powerful political figure in Xinjiang, was interviewed by Chinese journalists on June 23rd and made it clear that ideological and educational work was a high priority in the battle against separatism. Punishing those who had committed violent crimes was at the top of his agenda, but he stressed the need to educate the local population so that they understood better how separatists were distorting the history of Xinjiang. He said that hundreds of party and government officials had been sent out to rural Uyghur Regionin 'work groups' to publicize government policy, and a propaganda campaign was being waged in schools and in religious organisations.

The campaign against separatism has been waged by the Chinese authorities since the early 1990s but has been given added impetus by China's support for the USA-led war against Al Qaeda in Afghanistan. China hopes that this support will reduce the criticism it has received from human rights organisations over its policies on minority languages and culture in Xinjiang. In the past, China has identified underground Islamic organisations and political groups inspired by the short-lived East Turkestan Republic of the 1940s as the greatest threat to its hold over Xinjiang. The current campaign is directed against something even more fundamental to the identity of the Uyghurs, their spoken and written language.

CONCLUSIONS: Under the cover of the "war against terrorism" Beijing has been gradually stepping up the rhetoric against separatists in Xinjiang. The Strike Hard campaign that was launched in 1996 to root out underground criminal, political and religious organisations continues unabated and has succeeded in limiting the number of demonstrations against Chinese rule and the number of armed attacks by Uyghur separatists on the symbols of Beijing's authority in the region. The Strike Hard campaign was re-launched in April 2001 and regional and provincial authorities were instructed to pay particular attention to illegal religious activities, in other words those conducted by organisations not registered with the Chinese state. The number of death sentences and actual executions in Uyghur Regionhas increased in this period, although it is difficult to distinguish executions for separatist activities from those imposed for crimes, due to the way they are reported. The attack on Uyghur language and culture is all the more threatening because of the general climate of repression. The latest campaign affects all Uyghurs, not solely the militants, and carries the message that using the Uyghur language is a sign of disloyalty, if not an indication of support for terrorism. Repression on this scale may temporarily succeed in subduing the expression of ethnic identity but in the long-term it can only increase the resentment that Uyghurs feel towards their Chinese masters and fuel deeper conflict in the future.

AUTHOR'S BIO: Dr. Michael Dillon is Director of the Centre for Contemporary Chinese Studies at the University of Durham, UK.

Copyright 2001 The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst.

Before it s gone  Western China s Uyghur Region sees unusual culture slipping away

CITIES' MIDDLE EASTERN FLAVOR DILUTED BY INFLUENCE FROM BEIJING

By Joshua Kurlantzick

Special to the Mercury News

UYGHUR REGION, China - In five years of living in and traveling around Asia, I frequently scoffed at foreigners' stories of places that had been ``ruined'' by modernization, of destinations I had to visit before they were wrecked. For instance, while some people visiting Bangkok thought it an ugly, modern city, I saw a metropolis that had managed to expand without losing its uniquely Thai identity.

But even I eventually found a stunning place that seemed on the verge of being decimated: China's Uyghur Region province. Though I have visited every country in East Asia save North Korea, Uyghur Region was the most photogenic and culturally fascinating place I have seen -- a massive area populated primarily by Uyghurs (pronounced WEE-gurs), a Muslim Turkic ethnic group. Yet modernization and pressure from Beijing on the Uyghur culture seriously threaten the very aspects that enchanted me. Even worse, unlike changes in Thailand, Uyghur Region's modernization appears unlikely to benefit most of the province's inhabitants.

I spent seven days this summer desperately trying to see -- and scout out for other visitors -- every Uyghur Region site I expect to be gone in five years, and attempting to discover what the future held for the province.

Urumqi

A companion and I started our trip in Urumqi, Uyghur Region's largest city. Almost immediately, we felt like we were no longer in China. Wandering through the city's central market as Turkish pop music wafted through the air, I was reminded of Jordan. As in Amman, chatty Urumqi carpet vendors plied us with tiny cups of tea and Middle Eastern-style bagels. Outside, dried-fruit vendors yelled at the top of their lungs to advertise their selection, while young boys ran through the crowd, lifting packages in exchange for a bit of baksheesh.

Outside the market, however, Urumqi is becoming a Chinese city. Beijing fears the Uyghurs, who briefly had their own state before the Communist takeover in 1949, and over the past two decades has attempted to neuter Uyghur Region's society, culture and economy by launching aggressive resettlement policies. Only 300,000 Han Chinese resided in Uyghur Region in 1949; now there are more than 6.4 million. Beijing also has formulated policies that deprive the Uyghurs of their heritage. Artists suspected of ``advocating separatism''-- a broad category that could include simply promoting Uyghur arts -- have had their works seized and their homes destroyed. And since the Sept. 11 attacks, the situation has gotten worse. Beijing has attempted to link the few Uyghur separatist groups that exist to al-Qaeda, though independent Uyghur experts say there is no evidence of ties to Osama bin Laden's organization, and most Uyghurs do not want to separate from China. Nonetheless, over the past year China has intensified its crackdown in Uyghur Region, arresting and executing hundreds of Uyghurs.

The next day, we drove north from Urumqi to Tian Chi, or Heaven Lake, a little slice of alpine tarns and mountains inhabited primarily by ethnic Kazakh nomads. For 200 Chinese yuan () we stayed two nights in a local family's yurt, a round felt Kazakh tent. (The price included dinner, though we had a hard time explaining to the Kazakhs that we didn't eat meat; when we told our host, she offered us lamb.) The family had placed their yurts amid the Uyghur Region equivalent of a trailer park -- clusters of yurts decorated with strings of lights. The park even came complete with Kazakh trailer trash, a young woman in a halter top -- most nomads wear long coats and riding pants -- who frequently bickered with her significant other.

Unfortunately, across the lake from our yurt we could see Tian Chi's future. The local government was building a series of attractions that reminded me of the ugly, exploitative sites that have sprung up near many Indian reservations in the United States. We saw booths where Chinese tourists could get their pictures taken in traditional Kazakh dress, speedboats that zoomed day-trippers across the lake, paved hiking paths, trailside banquet halls.

But none of this construction could yet detract from the area itself, the most stunning mountain scenery I had seen in China. On our second day by the lake, we wandered up a horse path on Lamppost Mountain, one of the circle of peaks surrounding Tian Chi. After an hour of hiking, we were secluded in a high pine forest blessed with occasional clearings that offered views of the shimmering lake, which changed from green to turquoise as the sun rose.

Turpan

We drove the next morning along a new superhighway to Turpan, one of the oasis towns dotting the vast low Taklamakan Desert. Turpan actually sits in the second-lowest spot on Earth, 508 feet below sea level. While the other oasis cities are relatively recent constructions, Turpan dates back 2,000 years and was a key trading post during the Silk Road era. On the outskirts of town, we stopped at the Bezelik Caves, one of several ruins of pre-Islamic cities carved into the sandstone cliffs near modern-day Turpan. The circular sandstone dwellings and underground hideaways reminded me of Tatooine, Star Wars' sand planet.

We also stopped at Gaocheng, another ancient sandstone city that had deteriorated more than Bezelik -- though the old monastery/library that served as the town center remained, its thousand-year-old bookshelves and rooms intact. As at Tian Chi, however, tour groups had discovered Gaocheng, and the monastery was crowded with tourists trying on Uyghur dress and pulling off pieces of sandstone.

Our late lunch was amid a grape valley that reminded me of southern Italy. Along with the local grapes, we finished with slices of hami, a succulent local version of cantaloupe that is one reason why Uyghur Region is known across China for its delicious fruit.

Kashi

The next morning, we flew to Kashi, which would be the highlight of our trip. A hub of the old Silk Road, at the crossroads of Central Asia and China, Kashi has been one of the world's major trading posts for centuries. Today, the city still boasts an enormous Sunday market that draws people from all over Asia.

Beijing is aggressively redeveloping Kashi, and several residents said they expected older stone buildings to be torn down in the next year or two. Still, some of the older areas, as well as the Sunday market, are weathering the pressure of development. The alleys and bazaars of old Kashi remain the most crowded commercial districts in town. The Seman Hotel, an inn built in the building that served as the Russian consulate during the 19th-entury ``Great Game,'' when Britain and Russia competed for influence in Central Asia, is more popular than upscale new Chinese hotels. What's more, the Uyghurs themselves still take pride in Kashi's history. ``I prefer the old buildings, with their courtyards, to the new construction,'' one girl told us.

And though some Urumqi residents questioned why we would want to buy antique Uyghur rugs -- ``Old rugs are bad,'' one man told us, pointing us to newer, machine-made carpets -- the Kashi carpet merchants seemed unsurprised when we asked them to pull out older hand-woven items. Historically, hand-woven Uyghur carpets have been valued by collectors for their high knot-count, beautiful pomegranate-dye colors and elegant combinations of silk and wool. Over the past three decades, the Chinese government has organized Uyghur carpet weavers into state-owned factories, which sell their products at a large mark-up to tourist shops. (Some of these carpets retail for over ,000.) Yet this collectivization and codification has not destroyed the Uyghurs' art. Some Uyghur artisans who work for state factories also produce more intricate and labor-intensive carpets in home workshops and sell them to Kashi merchants.

We spent the first day wandering Kashi's labyrinthine and visually striking back alleys, full of sandstone houses covered in intricate tilework and lattices. Fig sellers who pushed the ripe fruit into the hands of passers-by competed for business with knife-sharpeners, gold dealers and bagel bakers pulling fresh batches out of brick ovens. Packs of children gathered around us and clamored to have their photos taken once they realized they could see their own image in our digital camera's viewfinder.

I snapped photos constantly. Because of its history as a trading post, Kashi boasts an amalgam of ethnicities, remarkable diversity of photogenic faces and costumes.

Walking back to our hotel, we heard melancholy accordion music wafting out of a small shop. We stopped to listen and were invited in by the musician, a middle-aged Uyghur man. He excitedly motioned for us to stay and telephoned his daughter, a high school student who desperately wanted to chat with foreigners to improve her English. She hurried to the shop and offered to guide us through the Sunday market the following day, after which we would retire to her family house for a large meal.

The next morning, the four of us -- she had brought a friend who also was learning English -- set off for the market. From an overlook, we could see thousands of people streaming down into the bowels of the bazaar, considered by many the biggest open-air market in the world. Indeed, everything at the bazaar was huge: Several city blocks worth of spice merchants, thousands of donkey carts tied to trees, fruit vendors peddling 50 watermelons at a time, seven-foot pyramids of tea.

By 2 p.m., shopped out, we retired to our guide's elegant stone house, where we ate on the floor in a small, carpet-covered room off the courtyard. Over a massive meal of dried fruits, hami, nuts, laghman (Uyghur noodles), fresh bagels, pulao (Uyghur rice with meat and vegetables), and, thankfully, not much lamb, the girls told us about their plans and dreams. Both were on their way to a university in eastern China. Though their parents had been married by arrangement, they both wanted to find men who loved them and try dating before marriage; one of the girls ultimately hoped to return to Uyghur Region with a husband and start a small business.

Still, both young women lived with their eyes open. ``Uyghur Region is changing a lot,'' said one. ``It doesn't seem much like the same place anymore.''

Her friend agreed. ``We hope to come back and do well, but it can be difficult to get ahead,'' she said. ``The Chinese in Uyghur Region have better schools and get jobs and business loans more easily -- I don't know what will happen to us.''

UYGHUR REGION BASICS

Comprising a sixth of China's area, Uyghur Region is one of the nation's five "autonomous regions," areas traditionally not dominated by Han Chinese. In reality, these regions don't have much autonomy from Beijing.

Area: 635,900 square miles, slightly bigger than Alaska

Population: 17 million in the region, 1 million in Urumqi, 181,500 in Kashi. About 95 percent of the population is concentrated in 3 1/2 percent of the area. Uyghurs are estimated to be 45 percent of the population and Han Chinese 40 percent.

Weather: In Urumqi, average high/low is 16/-2 in January, 87/65 in July. December through February are very snowy.

Currency: The yuan, worth about 12 cents U.S.

Time zone: Officially 16 hours ahead of Pacific standard time, but many locals observe informal "Uyghur Region time," 14 hours ahead of Pacific.

Documentation: Passport and visa required; visa fee from . Information: www.chinaconsulatesf.org, (415) 674-2940.

IF YOU GO

Getting there: The easiest way to get to Uyghur Region is to fly to Beijing, Hong Kong or Shanghai, then catch a China Uyghur Region Airlines flight to Urumqi. China Uyghur Region also flies from Urumqi to Kashgar and to other destinations in the province.

Major carriers including United, Cathay Pacific and Air Canada often offer flights to eastern China for as little as round-trip from San Francisco. However, internal flights to Uyghur Region are extremely expensive: Expect to pay at least for a round-trip ticket from eastern China to Urumqi, and to fly from there to Kashi. Great West Travel in Shanghai (+86 (21) 62798489) is one of the best Chinese travel agents for domestic flights.

When to go: Uyghur Region province is virtually inaccessible in the bitterly cold winter, between late October and April. Mid-summer, from late June until late July, also can be uncomfortable; Turpan, Urumqi and Kashi become extremely hot and dusty. Better to visit between late July and early October. Use sunscreen every day and drink plenty of water.

Lodging: The Holiday Inn (+86 (991) 2818788) is Urumqi's finest hotel and a bargain at a night. We thought the service here was superior to many four- and five-star hotels in Shanghai.

The Seman Hotel (+86 (998) 2822147), a sprawling complex that includes the former Russian consulate, is the choice in Kashi. Expect to pay roughly for a Russian consulate double. The manager, Abdul, is a fine source of information in the city,

Near Tian Chi, you can just show up and stay with Kazakhs who offer lodging in their yurts. If you want to reserve ahead of time, Mark Zhong (+86 13809939497), a local travel agent, can make arrangements.

Resources: Lonely Planet China and Lonely Planet Central Asia both have sections on Uyghur Region province.

For a history of the Great Game and foreigners' interaction with Uyghur Region, try the books ``Foreign Devils on the Silk Road'' or ``The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia,'' both by Peter Hopkirk.

Web sites:

www.uyghur.50megs.com, the Uyghur Photo site  Center, focusing on Uyghur Information ;http://homepages.utoledo.edu/nlight, the site of a U.S. specialist in Uyghur culture

Tips

Dress and behavior: Though the Uyghurs are one of the most liberal groups of Muslims in the world, and Uyghur women often dress in brightly patterned headscarves and sheer dresses, you should dress relatively conservatively in Kashgar and other western towns. Neither men nor women should wear shorts in public, and women should not wear short skirts or aggressively try to approach local men. Non-Muslim visitors should not attempt to enter mosques during prayer times.

Forbidden topics: Though you may find that Uyghurs you interact with are willing to talk about their views on China, do not question new acquaintances about Uyghur Region politics. Uyghurs have been arrested just for talking about China's role in the province. However, you can feel comfortable mentioning that you are American, since the Uyghurs generally are extremely pro-U.S.

Time zone: Although there is one official time zone in China, Uyghur Region is so far west of Beijing that locals have their own informal ``Uyghur Region time,'' two hours behind Beijing. If you are making appointments or booking transportation, be sure to inquire whether the time is Beijing time or Uyghur Region time.

If I offended your copyright please inform me, I will remove it from my site. oqya@yahoo.co.uk

Music of the Uyghurs Rachel Harris British Academy Post-Doctoral Fellow, Music Dept. SOAS, London Yasin Mukhpul Xinjiang Arts Research Unit, Published 2002. Encyclopedia of the Turks, vol. 6. Istanbul: Yeni Turkiye, pp542-9.

Introduction Uyghur music embraces several distinct regional styles, product of the geography and complex history of the region, whose oasis kingdoms, separated by mountains and deserts, have been subject through the course of history to rule by many different outside forces. The musical traditions of the southern oasis towns of Khotan and Kashgar are more closely allied to the classical Central Asian traditions of Bukhara and Samarkand, while the music of the easternmost oasis town of Qumul has closer links to the music of Northwest China. Each of the region's oasis towns have to this day maintained their own distinctive sound and repertoire, but they are linked by a common language and overarching culture, maintained by constant communication through trade and movement of peoples. Musically there is much to link these local traditions, in terms of instruments, genres, styles and contexts. The most prestigious and well-known genre of Uyghur music is the muqam, the large-scale suites of sung, instrumental and dance music. In addition to the muqam the Uyghurs maintain popular traditions of sung epic tales (dastan) and other forms of narrative song (qoshaq, name instrumental music; musical genres linked to the ceremonies of the Sufis, and a huge repertoire of folksongs which commonly dwell on the suffering of life on earth and the torments of frustrated love. Contrary to the common perception of Islam in the West as hostile to music, amongst the Uyghurs many traditional musical contexts are linked to the religion, largely due to the influence of the Sufis who use music to express and promote their faith. Today these traditional genres compete with a lively pop music industry and the music of the professional, state-sponsored troupes. History Uyghur scholars trace the roots of their music back to the 11th century BC to the Di people who are referred to in the earliest of the Chinese dynastic annals, living to the north of China. The first Turkic ( Kingdom was  established in the region now known as Xinjiang in 552AD, while the Uyghur Turks arrived somewhat later, moving westwards from Siberia in 840AD after the collapse of their kingdom on the Orghun river. They settled in the region north and south of the Heaven Mountains and intermingled with the local inhabitants. Hence the pre-9th century music of the region is equally regarded as the heritage of the contemporary Uyghurs. Chinese sources are rich in references to the early music of the region, which they term the 'Western Region' (xiyu). Dynastic annals record that a musician from the oasis kingdom of ?(Qiuci), named Sujup, travelled to the court of the Chinese emperor Wudi in A.D. 567 in the entourage of a Turk princess, and introduced the theory of seven modes and five tones to China. The music of  Idiqut (present-day Turpan), Iwirghol (present-day Qumul), Udun (present-day Khotan) and Sule (present-day Kashgar) were all popular in China during the Tang and Song dynasties (7th-10th centuries). Musicians from these kingdoms performed in the imperial court and in China's major cities, introducing new instruments and repertoires into central China. Their popularity can be seen from the frequent references in the Chinese poetry of that era. Scholars believe that the famed Tang Daqu suites of the imperial court, which were later adopted by the Japanese court, have their roots in the 5th century great suites (chong  of the Western Region. The custom of keeping musicians of the Western Region in the Chinese court continued into the Qing dynasty (founded 16th century). Qing court records refer to eight court musicians of the Western Region who played pieces named names also found in the contemporary Uyghur muqam. The historical flow of music has largely moved from west to east. While Chinese histories record the influence of the Western Region on central China, Uyghur music has historically absorbed much influence from the regions of Central Asia to the west, arriving along the famed Silk Road. Islam and Islamic culture spread slowly through the region, reaching Kashgar as early as the 10th century, and taking hold in Qumul to the east only in the 16th century. Uyghurs regard the Karakhan Khanate of Kashgar (founded in the 10th century) as a great age for the development of their music. This, Xinjiang's first Islamic kingdom, introduced along with the religion, the culture and learning of the Persian and Arab world. During this period the ideas of the musical theorists Al-Farabi and Ibn Shina were introduced, along with instruments like the kettle drum and shawm bands (naghra-sunay) which are believed to have played the Karakhan kings into battle. The Chagatay era (14th-15th century) is also regarded as an important period for cultural and musical development in Central Asia as a whole, and many of the Uyghur muqam are accredited to the poet-musicians of this era, such as Nawayi, Abdurakhman Jami and Mohammed Kuchtingir. An important source on the music of this period is the History of Musicians (Tarikhi Musiqiyun), written in Chagatay by Mulla Ismatulla Mojizi in 1854-5. A copy dated 1919 was discovered in Khotan in 1950, and the book has since been published in modern Uyghur. The book is written in the genealogical style of history common in the Central Asian tradition. It begins with the biographies of Qaruz, thought to be the inventor of music, and Pythagoras), who is credited with many miracles and as the founder of the ethics of music. Al Farabi is credited with the invention of the qalun dulcimer, and as the originator of Rak, Oshshaq and  Muqam. Mojizi also relates many miraculous tales of the fifteenth century musicians of the mystic tradition of the Timurid areas of Iran and Iraq. In the tale of Mawlana Sahib hi, for example, a nightingale is said to have perched on his as he sang, and the people at the majlis festival began to shout and weep, they rolled about and fainted. Fearful, they stoned the nightingale, and when the nightingale died, hi too fell down dead. Mojizi also relates the tales of two musicians from the sixteenth century Yarkand Khanate, a period which is widely regarded by Uyghurs as the high point of their culture. Yusup Qidir Khan Yarkandi (d. c.1560) was a musician at the court of Sultan Rashid Khan. He took apprentices from Western and Central Asia, and composed Wisal Muqam. Amannisa Khan was the daughter of a forester. She was discovered, aged thirteen, by the Sultan while he was out hunting. He fell in love with her singing and married her. Mojizi also accredits the composition of  Muqam to Amannisa Khan. Contemporary Uyghur scholars suggest that the musicians named by Mojizi were not actually creators of the muqam, but instead that these musicians, in particular Amannisa Khan and Yusup Qidir Khan, re-ordered existing music to conform with the Arab-Persian tradition and names. Hence the Uyghur muqam is thought to owe less to the Arab-Persian tradition, and more to the 5th century great suites (chong of the Western Region. The well-known muqam singer, Turdi Akhun, whose 1952 recordings form the basis of contemporary published versions, places the date of the restructuring of the muqam rather later. He recounts that, according to local tradition, different musicians formerly played the different sections of the muqam: court musicians played the complex chong narrative singers (dastanchi) sang the dastan; folk singers sang the  In the 19th century one Beg Aka of Kashgar brought these three groups of musicians together and unified the three repertoires. In the absence of detailed historical sources it is difficult to make any conclusive claims on the origins of the muqam. Some of the principal Uyghur musical instruments Dutar - a long-necked plucked lute with two nylon (formerly silk) strings tuned a fifth or sometimes a fourth apart, with seventeen chromatic frets. The dutar is beautifully decorated, like all Uyghur lutes, with settings in horn or bone. It is used to accompany folksongs, and as a supporting instrument in the muqam. A dutar can be found in almost every Uyghur home, and is the sole instrument which Uyghur women have traditionally played. It is played glissando, mainly on the upper string but with some heterophony from the thumb on the lower string. the longest of the Uyghur lutes at around 150cm, the has five metal strings tuned so-so-do-so-so. The melody is played on the double right-hand strings, using a metal pick (nakh on the index finger. The is sometimes used as principal instrument in the muqam, as well as for folksongs, narrative songs and instrumental pieces. Rawap - the shorter lute, plucked with a horn plectrum. Several different types are played by the Uyghurs. The Kashgar rawap, at around 90cm, has a small bowl-shaped body covered with skin and five metal strings, and is decorated with ornamental horns (The shorter herder's rawap (qoychi rawap), found in the Khotan region, measures around 70cm and is strung with two paired or three sheep-gut strings. Both of these types are played by the narrative singers (dastanchi and qoshaqchi). The Dolan rawap, principal instrument in the Dolan muqam, with one melodic and several sympathetic strings and pear-shaped body, ressembles the Afghan rubab more closely than the Kashgar rawap. The Qumul rawap is similiar to the Dolan version, and used in folksongs and the Qumul muqam. The Kashgar rawap has more recently become a professional virtuoso solo and orchestral instrument (té—âârawap) with six metal strings tuned do-do-so-re-la-mi. An equivalent bass rawap has also been added to professional orchestras. Chang The large hammer dulcimer used by the professional troupes and found in the folk context, its metal strings are strung in sets of three across several raised bridges. Qalun A smaller dulcimer, plucked with a bone pick held in the left hand, while the right hand presses on the string with a bronze key (gustap) to produce quarter tones and ornaments. The qalun is found more commonly in southern Xinjiang, especially amongst the Dolan. It plays a supporting role in the muqam. Satar - a long-necked bowed lute with one melodic and eight to twelve sympathetic metal strings. The satar plays an important role in the muqam, usually played by the lead singer (muqamchi). Its sympathetic strings may be tuned in five different ways depending on the mode of the muqam being played. Ghijek - a fiddle with a soundboard of stretched skin. The largest of the Uyghur ghijek is found amongst the Dolan, with one horse-hair melodic string and several metal sympathetic strings. The Qumul Ghijek ?has two bowed strings tuned a fifth apart, and six to eight sympathetic strings. The earliest Chinese historical records relate that a bowed instrument strung with horse-hair was played in the Qumul region, but the contemporary instrument is probably a fairly recent hybrid between the Chinese erhu fiddle and the Uyghur Ghijek testament to the Chinese cultural influence in this easternmost point of Xinjiang. The Ghijeknow played by professional musicians was adapted in the 1950s, today its four metal strings are tuned like the violin but its playing technique is closer to the Iranian spike fiddle, held on the knee, the bow is held loosely in the hand, palm upwards, and the strings are pressed against the bow by pivoting the instrument. This ghijekis also found in soprano and tenor versions. Khushtar - now a prominent instrument in the professional troupes, the khushtar viol was developed in the 1960s, modelled in its shape on instruments depicted in Xinjiang's early Buddhist cave murals. It is tuned and bowed like the professional ghijek but its tone is lower and softer, since the whole instrument is made of wood. It is also found in soprano and tenor versions. Dap - a frame drum, of which two types are current. The smaller at around 25-30 cm in diameter, is a virtually indispensable instrument for the muqam, playing a leading role in the instrumental sections (  The larger chong dap is used in other folk contexts, it may be used to accompany other instruments or may be played solo. The third and largest type, thought to have magic powers, is used in the healing rituals of the Uyghur shamans (baqshi or pirghun). Naghra - always played with the sunay, these are a pair of cast iron small kettle drums covered with cow or donkey skin laced over the body, played with a pair of sticks. The naghra-sunay group usually consists of one sunay player, with at least two and up to eleven sets of naghra which play complex rhythmic variations, with a large chong naghra maintaining the basic rhythmic cycle. Other percussion instruments include the sapayi- paired sticks pierced with metal rings, the most common folk percussion instrument, especially used by beggars and Sufis; the tash - four stones, two held in each hand, struck repeatedly and quickly together, and the qoshuq - two wooden spoons struck together back-to-back. Sunay - a small double-reed shawm, its conical wooden body has seven front holes and one thumb hole. It has a metal bell and metal mouthpiece. It is played using circular breathing, and has a range of over two octaves. Balaman - a short double-reed vertical reed pipe with seven finger holes, tuned by a cross-piece of reed fixed near the mouth end of the instrument. The balaman is now found only in the Khotan region, where it is used as a lead instrument in the muqam. BR>- found in the folk and professional contexts, traditionally the Uyghur …悘?was a long horizontal flute made of walnut wood, with a soft tone. In recent years the Uyghurs have adapted the Chinese bamboo horizontal flute. Qowuz - the metal jaw harp, played mainly by Uyghur women up until the 1950s, it is now rarely seen. In addition to these contemporary instruments, instruments historically used by the Uyghurs include the ghunqa - a form of harp, the  lute - ancestor of the Chinese pipa, the jalla - a bronze skin-covered tambourine, the sapal chora ocarina, and the isqirt slide flute. The Muqam The Uyghur muqam are large-scale suites consisting of sung poetry, stories, dance tunes and instrumental sections. Some of the lyrics of the muqam are drawn from the great Central Asian Chagatay poets, Nawayi, Shah Fuzuli, Mulla Belil and Zelil. Some are drawn from folk poetry, especially the popular tale of the lover. Much of the poetry is linked to the imagery and ideals of the Sufis. The muqam are usually performed by a small ensemble of singers, led by the lead singer muqamchi, accompanied by plucked or bowed lutes and dap frame drum, but they may also be played in instrumental form by kettle drum and shawm (naghra-sunay) bands. Playing the muqam is not reserved to an exclusive group of professional musicians; historically it was performed in folk contexts as well as in the courts of local kings. Men and women, beggars and respected religious men may practice this tradition, and the muqam are often referred to in terms of a spiritual, even physical need. Listening to the muqam can still serve a religious and meditative function, especially in the context of Xinjiang's great religious festivals. Contemporary scholars refer to four distinct regional genres: the Twelve Muqam of the Kashgar-Yarkand region, the Turpan Muqam, the Qumul Muqam, and the Dolan Muqam. The Twelve Muqam each consist of suites of fixed melodic sequences and order. To sing a complete muqam takes around two hours. The names of the muqam are drawn from Arabic and Persian, many related to the names of the Arab maqam: Rak, Chebiyat MushawrÄ Oshshaq, Bayat, Nawa, Sigah, Iraq. Each of the Twelve Muqam is structured as follows: MuqÄam ntroduction) - sung solo in free meter. Themes dwell on human suffering and religious feeling. The lyrics are attributed the great Central Asian poets. Chong Neghme great music) - a suite of named pieces in varying set rhythms. Each sung piece is followed by an instrumental ornamented version,For example, in the piece Oshshaq muqamining the first part of the name indicates the modal and melodic material relating to Oshshaq muqam, while the second part indicates the 6/4 rhythm of €š?is the longest and most complex section of the muqam. Of the muqam performed today only about half possess the full complement of eight pieces in the chong neghme and work is ongoing to restore, or more often recreate, the missing pieces. Dastan (narrative songs) - each muqam contains several dastan in different rhythms. Again each dastan is followed by an instrumental mereghul. The lyrics are drawn from sections of folk narrative songs and relate the stories of famous lovers. The melodic range of the dastan is particularly wide. shrep gathering) - several faster sung pieces in 2/4 or sometimes 7/8 rhythms, consisting of folk love poetry. This section of the muqam is for dancing. Usually the lyrics of the first attributed to a famous poet. Structure Chong neghme unmetered 6/4 Dastan 1 4/4 or 6/4 2 7/8 3 3/4 4 6/8 Unlike the Arab tradition, the term muqam does not imply mode to Uyghurs. Its associations include mood, smell or style (piraq), pitch, tone of voice, person, time or place. The term also refers to the place where musicians performed in the royal courts. The term muqam has moral power, as in the saying "uning muqami yoq" (he has no muqam, i.e. he is unreasonable). Each muqam is distinguished by its dominant melodic patterns and modal characteristics, some feature the use of a principal and a secondary mode. Modulation is a major feature of the Twelve Muqam. A single piece may pass from a heptatonic to hexatonic to a pentatonic scale. In pitch the muqam are not confined to the tempered scale, but make frequent use of raised or lowered notes, pitched according to the sense of the musician. Unfixed sliding notes are common, and used frequently in modulation, especially the fourth or seventh of the scale. Uyghurs excel in the art of juggling modes. In the course of one piece a new mode appears, subtly changes, makes a brief reappearance, and moves back into the principal mode. The development of melodic material is an attractive feature of the muqam. Typically a single theme develops over the course of several phrases, tracing an arc moving from low to high to low pitch, then transposing into the secondary mode. The many varied rhythmic cycles are somewhat shorter than those of the classical Turkish tradition, but they are brought to life by the complex and diverse variations rendered by the drum. Irregular aqsaq rhythms are common, and another attractive feature of Uyghur music is the tendency to transform ternary rhythms into binary rhythms, overlaying a basic 7/8, for example, with varying sets of duolets and quadruplets. The Twelve Muqam are found around southern Xinjiang, and also in the Ili valley although only the and dastan sections are now performed in Ili. The vocal style here has absorbed much of the local flavour, and the preferred instruments are the plucked lutes and dutar, the chang hammer dulcimer, and the violin, while the dap frame drum is rarely used. The other three regional muqam are distinct from the Twelve Muqam in structure. The Turpan Muqam, of which nine have been creditably collected, each consist of a suite in six named sections: - in free rhythm, sung solo 5/4 or 13/8 rhythm, a slow sung piece Jula - in 4/4, a moderate dance piece in 4/4, an accelerating dance piece including the local dance piece, Nazarkum. in 4/4, a moderate dance piece Each of the Turpan Muqam generally corresponds to one mode, and each is about thirty minutes in length. Although no information on its historical transmission is currently available, musically there is much to link the Turpan Muqam to the chong of the Twelve Muqam. While the section names differ, there is correspondence in overall structure, rhythmic cycles and melodic material. The preferred instrument for the Turpan Muqam is the satar bowed lute, plus  dutar, chang and dap frame drum accompanying voices. The Turpan Muqam are also played in an instrumental version on the naghra-sunay combination. Skilled drummers add breath-taking variations to the basic rhythms, transforming the Yalangchikit section, for example, from its basic 5/4-beat into a 17-beat aqsaq. Although it is common practice now to refer to the Qumul Muqam, the use of term muqam here is recent. The Qumul Muqam take the form of suites of local folksongs, varying in length between eight and twenty-two songs, with a free rhythm at their head. Nineteen suites have been collected and published as the Qumul Muqam. Each suite bears an Arab or Persian name, some of which are similiar to the Twelve Muqam. Musically, however, there is little to link the Qumul tradition to the Twelve Muqam. Qumul folk musicians still use the local names, thus the Qumul Rak Muqam is popularly known as Sayrang Bulbulum (Sing, My Nightingale). The Qumul Muqam have a strong pentatonic basis, rhythms include 2/4, 4/4, 5/8, and 7/8. The main instrument for the Qumul Muqam is the Qumul ghijekaccompanied by the Qumul rawap, chang and dap. The Dolan Uyghurs who live in the region between Aqsu and Kashgar have their own distinctive muqam tradition. The Dolan Muqam take the form of a five-part suite: Serilma - in 4/4 or 5/8. The dancers whirl, and some enter a trance-like state Some of the names of the Dolan Muqam are the same as the Twelve Muqam, but musically they are distinct at six to nine minutes in length, and nine suites have been identified. Folk musicians tend to refer to their suites as bayawan (desert), suggesting that the use of the term muqam in this context is also a rather recent phenomenon. The instruments and texts used by the Dolan are unique. The Dolan Muqam are accompanied by drummers, a Dolan rawap, Dolan ghijek… and the qalun dulcimer. Rhythmically, syncopation is common in the Dolan Muqam, they use hexatonic and heptatonic modes, with much use of modulation and raised or lowered tones. The unique feature of the Dolan Muqam is that each of the different instruments follow different melodic patterns as they play, giving a sense of heterophony and heterorhythm. Local musicologists like to say that if the Twelve Muqam are the classical music of the Uyghurs, then the Dolan Muqam are the Uyghurs' jazz, remarking on their complex instrumental patterns and ecstatic falsetto vocal style. They also suggest that the Dolan is a pure folk tradition, unlike the Twelve Muqam, which has never been taken into the court and ordered and refined. Folksong The Uyghurs classify folksongs according to their region of origin, and each region has its own distinctive sound. Modally the songs of southern Xinjiang are usually heptatonic while the songs of Ili, Turpan and Qumul are more commonly pentatonic or hexatonic. Many folksongs have recurrent raised or lowered intervals. Folksongs may take any note of the scale as tonic, and many folksongs feature modulation to a secondary mode. Rhythms are in short cycles, with much variation. The Ili style tends to use duple rhythms while in the south 5/8, 7/8 and 9/8 rhythms also appear. Primarily accompanied by the dutar and/or a frame drum, one interesting feature of Uyghur folksong is that the accented drum beat does not fall at the beginning or end of the melodic phrase. The singing style is highly ornamented and uses a wide range, especially in the songs of Ili whose attractive swoops and leaps in the melodic line have lead the Chinese to term them 'wolf songs' (lang'ge). The Qumul style is considered softer, while Kashgar style is more vigorous. Songs are usually short, lasting a few minutes, and are commonly strung together into suites like the street song suite (kocha nakhshisi of Ili. The vast majority of song lyrics dwell on tragic love, others take religious or local historical themes, and others are comical. Dance Music Uyghurs use the term from the Arab: carved image) to refer suites of between six and thirteen folksongs played usually for dancing. All the major oasis towns each have their own distinctive as does the Ili valley and the Dolan people. Each employs the distinctive vocal style and a fixed suite of folksongs of its own region, but the across the region are all related rhythmically, beginning with the same moderate four-beat dance rhythm and move gradually towards a faster four-beat. Each region uses its own preferred instrumental combination to accompanying singers, and the may also be played in a purely instrumental version by the naghra sunay bands. Other forms of dance music are specifically dedicated to dancing. During the festival of Qurban, naghra-sunay bands may play on the roofs of the main mosques, most famously in Kashgar, and large crowds gather to dance the local styles of shadiyana and sama throughout the night. Many styles of Uyghur dancing involve a theatrical element, like the  ? comic skits with sung lyrics and spoken parts, or the popular dance nazarkum of Turpan. Some Uyghur dances are thought to be of totemic origin and may formerly have served a ritual function although they are now performed for entertainment, like the swan dance (ghaz ussul) or horse dance (at ussul) in which the dancer dresses in pantomime animal costume. Narrative songs (There are five named genres of narrative songs, performed by one or several singers accompanying themselves on plucked lutes or percussion. Some dastan are to do with famous lovers, like the tale of Gherip Senme or Horliqa and , others tell of mythical and historical heroes and heroines of the Uyghurs like Emir Guroghli, Abdurakhman Khan, and Nuzugum. Some of these tales have a long and complex provenance, taken from the oral tradition and reworked by the Central Asian poets and returned to the folk context. Others are based on more recent historical events. Musically the dastan employ a comparatively wide pitch range, they are attractive melodically, and may use any of the modes found in Uyghur folksongs. Dastan are found in 3/4, 4/4, 5/8 or 7/8 rhythms. Qoshaq are short rhymed poems, on moral or comical themes, employing a narrower pitch range. The  ?skits are also counted as a genre of narrative song. The ´hish are sung in duets and mix sections of speech and song. They are usually comical and may be theatrical in performance, often involving cross-dressing. The are stories relating to the Islamic tradition or on moral themes, with short sung refrains and longer spoken sections, usually performed without musical instruments. Formerly after Friday prayers people gathered in teahouses to listen to the story-tellers, but the tradition is now increasingly rare, a phenomenon of modernisation, in particular the impact of television and cassettes. But storytellers can still be found today on the streets of Xinjiang's bazaars, and especially in the poorer south, and they are common sight at Xinjiang's great mazar festivals held at the tombs of Islamic saints, where people gather in large crowds to listen. Instrumental music The Uyghurs play many forms of instrumental music in diverse styles, many derived from vocal genres. Popular pieces include performed on the and dutar. Many musical genres are also played in instrumental form by the naghra-sunay bands. Religion and music Amongst the Uyghurs the boundaries of the sacred and the secular are blurred, and many forms of secular music are performed in ritual contexts. Some musical forms, however, are unique to the ritual context. Uyghur ritual healers, still found in the countryside, are known as baqshi or pirghun. Their ritual chants of expulsion often employ local folksong melodies, and sometimes their lyrics are on the same themes of love as the folksongs. They are usually accompanied by several drummers (dapTheir rituals are strongly shamanic in form, with the use of the rhythms of the frame drum to drive out the possessing spirit, and the trance-like dance of the pirghun. Some Uyghur dance forms, like the sama, are also thought to have shamanic roots. The Uyghur Sufi lodges maintain a unique musical tradition in their large-scale dhikr rituals. The practice of dhikr, found amongst Sufis across Central Asia, Iran, and Turkey, refers to the recitation of the names of Allah and Islamic saints. Amongst the Uyghurs this ritual is popularly termed - circling (and talking), while zikiri (dhikr) refers specifically to the ritual chants. The ritual song âis sung in a free metered falsetto, with a plangent melody. As the names and deeds of the saints, in this tradition the founder of the lodge and the subsequent generations of his disciples, are recited, the men attending the ceremony weep. As the singer moves into the metered section, at first the men kneel and rock back and forth energetically, then they begin to move in a large circle, moving their arms to the beat and chanting. Each chant has a specific rhythm, and up to seventeen may be performed in the course of a ritual, lasting up to seven hours. In the Khotan region, up to the 1970s, Sufi rituals were accompanied by musical instruments, including bowed and plucked lutes and percussion. This practice has now virtually died out, although some groups still use sapayi percussion sticks to accompany their chants. Women Sufi ritualists, known as  are numerous across the region. Their ceremonies are similiar in form to those of the men, although the melodies of their ritual songs (munajatdiffer from the of the men. The also sing at mazar festivals, they may serve as mourners at funerals, and they conduct healing and exorcism rituals (in peoples homes. Their plangent munajÄ‚songs, usually sung unaccompanied, are considered to be very moving. Amongst the Uyghurs religious mendicants can still be found, called ashiq or mÄ‚n. These wandering beggars are said to have consecrated their life to music-making for God, and Uyghurs are very charitable towards them. Today they most commonly use percussion instruments, dap, sapayi Äor tash, but at mazar festivals they may also play plucked or bowed lutes. Many of their songs, also called are closely related to the sections of the muqam. Contexts The Uyghurs hold or gatherings regularly at festival times, and for many kinds of toy - weddings, circumcisions, for girls coming of age, for the harvest, etc. are common around the region, and may include any number of people. The Dolan are commonly held on a much larger scale, attended by hundreds of people, and often last the whole night. Such occasions are incomplete without music. Alongside performance of the muqam and dancing, comical skits and epic songs, an akhun may be invited to discourse on moral and religious questions, and have traditionally served the social function of a public court, with wrongdoers brought before the organiser (yigit beshi) to be criticised and punished. At weddings, the more solemn rituals of the morning held in the groom's home are often followed by singing from the muqam. When the groom goes to fetch the bride, the procession is led by a naghra-sunay band, these days often played from the back of a truck. In the afternoon, a banquet is held and a band is employed to sing a range of music from folksongs and to pop music, for dancing. The festivals of Qurban, Rozi and Nawruz are also important occasions for musical activity, and the great mazar festivals held at the tombs of Islamic saints are the venues for all kinds of music: muqam, story-telling, Sufi ritual music, and dancing. Bibliography During, Jean & Trebinjac, Sabine. 1991. Introduction au Muqam Ouigour. Bloomington, Indiana. Harris, Rachel. 1998. Music, Identity and Persuasion: ethnic minority music in Xinjiang, China. Ph.D. Dissertation. London University. ___ 2001. 'Wang Luobin: "Folksong King of the Northwest" or Song Thief? Copyright, representation and Chinese "folksongs".' in Latham, Kevin & Thompson, Stuart eds. Consuming China: approaches to cultural change in contemporary China. Curzon Press. ___ 2001. 'Cassettes, Bazaars and Saving the Nation: the Uyghur Music Industry in Xinjiang, China.' in Craig, Tim & King, Richard eds. Global Goes Local: Popular Culture in Asia. University of British Columbia Press. Light, Nathan. 1998. Slippery Paths: The Performance and Canonization of Turkic Literature and Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and Modernity. (Folklore, Indiana University). Mackerras, Colin. 1984. 'The Uighur Mukam'. Asian Music. ___ 1995. China's Minority Cultures: identities and integration since 1912. New York: Longman. Roberts, Sean. 1998. 'Negotiating Locality, Islam, and National Culture in a Changing Borderlands: the revival of the ritual among young Uighur men in the Ili valley.' Central Asian Survey. 17/4. pp672-700. Svanberg, Ingvar. 1996. 'Ethnic Categorizations and Cultural Diversity in Xinjiang: The Dolans along Yarkand River'. Central Asiatic Journal. 40/2. pp260-282. Trebinjac, Sabine. 1995. 'Femme, Seule et Venue d'Ailleurs: trois atouts d'un ethnomusicologue au Turkestan Chinois.' Cahiers de Musiques Traditionelles 8. ___ 2000. Le Pouvoir en Chantant:l'art de fabriquer une musique chinoise. Nanterre: SociÄ___ 2000. New Grove Dictionary of Music: entry on Northwest China. Zhongguo Minjian Yinyue Jicheng: Xinjiang (Anthology of Chinese Folk Music: Xinjiang). Zhou Ji. 1998. Weiwu'erzu (The Uyghurs) Chapter 8 (pp295-373) in: Zhongguo Shaoshu Minzu Yinyue Shi (History of Music of Chinese Ethnic Minorities). Yuan Bingchang & Feng Guangyu eds. Zhongyang minzu daxue cbs. ___ 2001. Youguan 'Daolang Mukamu' de bijiao yanjiu (Comparative research on the Dolan Muqam). Zhongyang yinyue xueyuan xuebao 2001/1. Recordings Music of Chinese Minorities. 1981. Japan: King Record Co. Turkestan Chinois/Xinjiang: musique Ouigoures. 1990. Recordings by Sabine Trebinjac & Jean During. France: OCORA. La Route de Soie, Chine, Xinjiang. 1992. Recordings by Anderson Bakewell. France: Production Sunset. Music of Xinjiang. Xinjiang Song-and-Dance Troupe. 1993. BMG Hong Kong Ltd. The Red Rose: Xinjiang Instrumental Music. Mukam Art Troupe of Xinjiang. 1998. Hong Kong: Hugo Productions. HRP 7169-2. Don't Torment Me, Dear: Xinjiang Folk Songs. Mukam Art Troupe of Xinjiang. 1998. Hong Kong: Hugo Productions. HRP 7170-2. The Uyghur Musicians from Xinjiang: music from the oasis towns of Central Asia. 2000. UK: Globestyle. CDORBD 098.

Names of Uighur scientists and scholars are well-known outside the academic science. They are S.Karabayeva (Doctors of Medicine Sciences), T.Sopiyev (Doctors of Medicine Sciences), R.Avutov (Doctor of Economic Sciences), M.Abdrakhmanov (Doctor of Philology), T.Alibakiyeva (Doctor of Arts) and others. 

Uighur journalism develops along with Science and Humanities. Republican newspaper 闁间警姣e Uighur Avazi缂?(闂佺偨鍎茬紙绫琫 Voice of the Uighurs闂? and its supplement 闂佺偨鍎叉潻鏀卬gi Khayat闂?(闂佺偨鍎茬紙绫琫 New life闂? in Arabic Uighur script with total circulation of 10,000 copies, the radio- and tele- broadcasting in Uighur reflected life of the Uighurs in Kazakhstan.

2. Fine and Applied Arts

The beginnings of original art of the Uighurs go back to ancient days. Eastern Turkestan, old motherland of the Uighurs, is the region where the Great Silk Route, which tied East and West and assured interchange of material and spiritual values, ran. Contacts, which took place in this place between representatives of various cultural environments, assisted in enrichment of Uighur artistic traditions with achievements of Central Asian, Eastern Iranian and Northern Indian cultures. Wall paintings and sculptures of ancient Uighur cave temples 闂佺偨鍎查崣鎲弉g oyé—‚?(闂佺偨鍎茬粣鍗唙es of Thousand Buddhasé—‚?, samples of carpet weaving, metallic, ceramic and wood products testify for this interchange. After the October Revolution ancient Uighur arts had a chance for further development. Fine arts, which were prohibited under Islam, had an opportunity to revive. Avakri Shamsuddinov (Shamsi) was the first Uighur Soviet artist-professional. In 1928 he entered Moscow Conservatoire and next year he was sent to Leningrad Academy of Arts. In 1937 he had his first personal exhibition at Conference of Intelligentsia of Uighur culture. In 1974 more than 30 his canvases were displayed at his personal exhibition. He was an acknowledged master of portrait. His portrait works such as 闂佺偨鍎查挊銈沝yr Palvané—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粚绶塧yat Kurbanové—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粚绶坅ngeldy Imanové—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粣妾僲bulé—‚?are well-known. In his works he aspired to reflect inward life, spirituality of his personages. A character of a man of labor was the main theme of Z.Yusupov, other talented Uighur artist who created a number of original portrait works such as 闂佺偨鍎茬純姝泂yrové—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粣?Sattarové—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粣姝況ibjanové—‚? 闂佺偨鍎茬粚?Shamiyevé—‚?and others. 

In 1970-1980s works of M.Khetakhunov, P.Ibragimov (Honored Worker of Arts) as well as works of young artists K.Zulfikarov, A.Akhatbakiyev, R.Yusupov and others obtained broad recognition. 

Ideas of preservation and continuity in development of Uighur spiritual tradition of fine arts, which popularized multinational arts in Kazakhstan and encouraged favorable exchange between various cultures and traditions, prevailed among modern Uighur artists. Gallery 闂佺偨鍎查崣鎲弉g oy闂?led by U.Jalilov was the initiator of these ideas and practical principles. Many gifted artists such as A.Isa, R.Yusupov, K.Zulfikarov, A.Zulfikarov, Kh.Kurbanov, M.Khitakhunov and others who keep great legacy of their ancestors in their works are unified under the Gallery.

3. Calligraphy

Niyaz Kerim 闁肩櫢濡囧ú绔iy is a well-known calligrapher. His outstanding works have brought fame both to him and to the Uighur people. He has taken initiative to put all the styles of modern Uighurs calligraphy into order. He compiled a textbook for modern Uighur calligraphy, which consists of twelve books. He has also written a number of articles on the arts of Uighur calligraphy. They include: "Styles of Uighur Calligraphy", "Practical Examples of Uighur Calligraphy", "Handbook on Uighur Calligraphy" and "The Works of Niyaz Kerim 闁肩櫢濡囧ú绔iy".

Some of the works by Niyaz Kerim 闁肩櫢濡囧ú绔iy are presented here.

_________________________________ 

14. Sharipov A., 40 years of people闂佺偨鍎查悰?education in Kazakhstan, Alma-Ata, 1960, pp.7-8.

15. AOGA f. 489, Op.1, d.644, sv. 49, L. 6-7.

16. 闂佺偨鍎茬粣姘舵儎閻€婇柣?SPAN lang=TR style="mso-ansi-language: TR">闁?/SPAN>闁烩晝鐏妉闁烩晝鐏?avazi闂?("Voice of the poor闂?, 15.12.1929.

17. AOGA, f.337, Op.1, d.228, sv.16, L. 6-7.

18. SGA Kaz.SSR, f.81, Op.1, d.1370, sv.107, p.19.

19. SGA Kaz.SSR, f.5, Op.14, d.307, L.19.

20. Sembayev A.I. History of development of Soviet school in Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata, 1962, p.292.

21. On history of founding of Uighur theater see Kaydarov A. Uighur Soviet theater. Alma-Ata, 1984. 

U I G H U R   S C R I P T

Kuddus Issiyev

Uyghur Region  has been drawing attention of researchers of the world for a couple of centuries. Recently interest of the world was drawn to the region due to discovery of mysterious mummies, which are contemporaries of Egyptian mummies and date back as far as 2000 B.C. 

At the end of the 18^th and the beginning of the 19^th centuries 11 Russian, 3 English, 2 French, 4 German, 3 Japanese expeditions were sent to the region. These expeditions have found ruins of ancient towns, burial places of the unknown people, architectural ensembles and huge amount of written texts on paper, wooden boards, and walls. They have brought out great amount of materials including written manuscripts, frescos, etc. Now these materials are being kept in museums, libraries and depositories of St.-Petersburg (Russia), Berlin (Germany), London (Great Britain), Paris (France), Peking (China), New Delhi (India) and Japan. The largest collection of the Ancient Uighur manuscripts and fragments - Turfan collection - was collected by the German researchers A.Grunvedel and A. Leqoc in 1902-1914. It includes more than 8 thousand units. Russian collection of the Leningrad Department of Russian Academy of Sciences includes about 4200 units of manuscripts. The materials of both collections are well studies. Some of them were published. Collections of the Uighur manuscripts in other countries are smaller and less studied.  

Uighur documents found in Eastern Turkestan were written in various kinds of script, namely: Runic, Manichean, Syrian, Nestorian, Estrangelo, Brahmi Tibetan and actually Uighur. Uighur manuscripts found on territory of today閳ユ獨 Mongolia were written in so-called Orkhon script. The majority of the texts, except those written in Orkhon and Uighur scripts, are the religious texts of Manicheans, Nestorians and Buddhists. Orkhon Runic script was used in writing of Epic works. Uighur script was widely used in day-to-day life for economic and juridical needs. I would like to address to this two kinds of script in more detail.  

Runic Ancient Turkic script came into the world before the 7^th century AD. It consisted of 37 or 38 graphemes, which were written separately from each other. The script was created on the basis of Sogdian non-cursive alphabet, which, in turn, ascends to Aramaic. Orkhon script was written from the right to the left. Most of consonant graphemes had several variants of spelling depending on vowels next to them. The system of denoting of vowels is based on the opposition of syllables containing forward and back vowels. Each grapheme denotes a syllable or a phoneme.  

This script was very suitable for rock inscriptions and inscriptions on wooden boards and sticks. For the first time monuments of Orkhon script were found in the river Yenisei valley (today閳ユ獨 Russia) in the time of Peter the Great at the end of the 17^th and the beginning of the 18^th centuries. At the end of 19 centuries the Russian and Finnish expeditions were dispatched to Orkhon river (today閳ユ獨 Mongolia) for the search and study of the monuments. Orkhon inscriptions are found on the gravestones, stele and obelisks, which describe the most important moments of life of the buried person. Next to the obelisks are found the stone statues, which personify the main enemies killed by the buried. Mainly, Uighur Orkhon inscriptions were created in the time of Orkhon Uighur Qaghanate, which existed in 745-840. They are the Selenga stone, Qarabalasaghun inscription, Sevrey stone, Terkhin and Tesin inscriptions. In those inscriptions we can find details on the history of the Qaghanate. Some samples of the Orkhon runic in the Uighur language were also found in Eastern Turkestan. But they are insignificant in number. The important fact is that so-called é‘ş?/SPAN>Ancient Turkic language绂?actually is divided into 2 languages é–ł?the language of Ancient Turkic Runic inscriptions and the language of Ancient Uighur inscriptions. These two languages practically are the same. Creators of the Ancient Uighur manuscripts in Eastern Turkestan in one manuscript write, that they translated certain text from the certain language into Turkic, and in others the same translators write, that they translated the text into the Turkic Uighur language. (Shingko Seli-Tutung é–ł?Altun Yaruq é–ł?Suvarnaprabhasa).  Uighur interpreters, monks and officials knew that the literary and linguistic tradition, which ascended to the Runic obelisks on Orkhon river, was uninterrupted and continuous, irrespective of change of religion and customs, and this tradition was related to the creators of the first written texts who called their language Turkic.  

Uighur script was created on the basis of Sogdian cursive (italic) alphabet not later than the beginning of the 1st millennium. The earliest work written in the Uighur language in Uighur script é–ł?/SPAN>Huastuanifté–ł?é–ł?閳ユ阀enitential pray of Manicheistsé–ł?was dated by the Soviet researcher S.E.Malov the 5^th century A.D. After having studied the Chinese historical chronicles, Uighur historian Turghun Almas asserts, that Uighur script came into the world several centuries before Christ.  

The Uighur alphabet consisted of 20 letters, including 5 vowel and 15 consonant graphemes. 3 out of 5 vowels denoted 2 sounds each, thus they reproduces 8 vowel sounds. 3 consonant graphemes denoted 2 sounds each. Thus they reproduced 20 consonant sounds. Thus, the alphabet, which consisted of 20 graphemes, reproduced up to 30 phonemes. The spelling of the graphemes depends on their location in a word, i.e. each letter is spelled differently in the beginning, middle and the end of a word. The text in Uighur script was written vertically, from above downwards. Uighur script, being compact, reflected phonologic system of the language in the conditional form. Therefore today the restoration of real phonation of the language elements is very hard.  

As it was already said before, the Uighur documents found in Eastern Turkestan, mainly represent the translations of religious texts, and also significant quantity of the economic and legal documents. The religious texts including Buddhist, Manichean and Christian sutras, tenets, descriptions of life of the Saints, etc. were translated from Sanskrit, Tokharian, Chinese, Sogdian and other languages. The main purpose of these documents was the distribution and strengthening of religion in Eastern Turkestan, Mongolia, and also in China. These documents are of particular importance for the researchers because many works in the originals language have not reached us. They would have been irrevocably lost, if there had not existed their translations in the Uighur language. The legal documents included papers attesting sale and purchase, loan of money and property, borrowing of cattle, rent of property, debt receipts, etc. The economic documents comprised the orders and references of authorities concerning economic activity of landlords and farmers.  

Such documents were written not only by officials, but also by ordinary people. It shows the high level of literacy among the Uighurs in the Middle Ages, as every farmer could write.  

As is known, the Mongols by the order of Genghis-khan adopted the Uighur script in the 12-13^th centuries through Uighur clerks, administrative officials, and also khansé–ł?children educators, who occupied important positions at the court of the Mongolian khans. Plano Karpini, Guillom de Rubruk and Marco Polo wrote about it in their travel notes when they visited the Mongol Empire in the 13^th century. In Mongolia this script is still used though it is a little modified variant. In the time of Mongol dynasty Yuan in China in 1260-1368 where the Uighurs also occupied important administrative positions, the Uighur script was borrowed by the Manchu.  

By the 7^th century A.D. Buddhism lost its ground in India, and in China it did not yet spread vastly. Thus in the 7-10^th centuries Eastern Turkestan became the world Buddhist center with hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and thousand of monks. Buddhist monks and those who wanted to follow Buddhism came into Eastern Turkestan from all Central Asia and China to purchase religious books, to receive enlightenment, and to participate in theological discussions. The demand for books increased extremely and the old daysé–ł?method of book writing and copying, which required large forces, expenses and time, could not satisfy the demand. At this particular time in Turfan the book printing by xylography was invented. Perhaps, it is not the accident that the majority of Uighur manuscripts dated the 8-13^th centuries was found around town of Turfan, which was the pioneer of book printing. Some say, that xylography is a Chinese way of book printing. But they are mistaken, relating Turfan to China. Today Turfan is in China, but in the time of the invention Turfan was not a part of China. It could have been very difficult for the Chinese to introduce this way of book printing, since the Chinese language is expressed on a paper by means of thousands of hieroglyphs (characters). It is an infernal work to cut out thousands of tiny hieroglyphs, which could have been destroyed after several printings. After that it would have been necessary to cut them out again. According to T.F.Carter, the Chinese written official chronicles do not indicate that the book printing was invented in China. To compare, it is necessary to say, that in Europe the xylography came into the world only in the 14^th century. The first printing press in Europe was invented by Joan Gutenberg in Germany only in 1450. Thousands of books printed in Eastern Turkestan needed to be stored somewhere. For this purpose, numerous libraries were built. Up to this day researchers discover documents, books and manuscripts of the past in those libraries.  

By the religious context the Uighur documents in Uighur script are divided into 3 categories: the texts of Buddhist, Manichean and Christian contents.  

A minor part of the Uighur manuscripts discovered in Eastern Turkestan were written on a wooden boards and sticks. But the majority of them was written on a paper. Manufacture of paper in this region began approximately in the beginning of the 2d century AD, first in Hotan and Qashqar, and later in Turfan and Kuchar (the 4^th century). Paper was produced of bark of some trees (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry-tree). In Aqsu area paper was produced of cotton. In the process of producing paper, it was imbued with starch glue, then covered with a layer of plaster and polished. To ensue the best preservation of paper, it was imbued with sap of flowers and fruits of certain tree, which is called thum鐩瞜 in Uighur (huay). It is interesting that nowadays in Eastern Turkestan local Uighur craftsmen produce paper by the same way, as their ancestors long time ago.  

Documents found in Dunghuang and dated the 18^th century are the last manuscripts in the Uighur language in Uighur script. By the 18^th century, mainly the population of Eastern Turkestan had switched to the Arabic alphabet. Only Buddhist clergy, who formed a stronghold in Dunghuang, continued to use the same old Uighur script.  

Script, which was used more than 700-800 years not only by the Uighurs, but also by other Turkic and non-Turkic peoples, as well as huge cultural and political influence of the Uighurs in Central Asia fell into decay with arrival of Islam into the region. As is known, Uighur khan Sutuq Bughra-khan adopted Islam in 932 and since then the influence of the Arabic language, culture and arts on the peoples who inhabited the region has steadily increased. Though in Turfan and Dunghuang areas Buddhism and its influence remained unchanged up to the 14-15^th centuries. 

Eastern Turkestan has been regarded by many scholars as the most mysterious spot on the planet. However, this region has not been sufficiently studied since the lack of resources and well-known attitude of the Chinese government towards foreign presence in the region erect insurmountable obstacles for researchers. Nowadays, the Uighur people who has created numerous invaluable monuments in literature and arts, who has influenced the development and evolution of other people and played an important role in the politics of the region, is being annihilated by the Chinese government policies. If the world continues to do nothing about it, this people will cease to exist.

 Bibliography:

1. Klyashtorny S.G., Ancient Turkic Manuscripts // Eastern Turkestan in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Moscow, 1992 (In Russian)
2. Tugusheva L.Yu. Uighur Handwritten Book in Early Middle Ages // Handwritten Book in Culture of Oriental Peoples, Moscow, 1988 (In Russian)
3. Vorobyeva-Desyatkovskaya M.I., Handwritten Book in Central Asian in Pre-Muslim Period // Handwritten Book in Culture of Oriental Peoples, Moscow, 1988 (In Russian)
4. Malov S.E., Ancient Turkic Manuscripts, Moscow-Leningrad, 1951 (In Russian)
5. Turghun Almas, The Uighurs, Volume 2, Almaty, 1994 (In Russian)

U I G H U R   L i t e r a t u r e

Literature of the Uighurs in Kazakhstan, having common roots with Uighur literature of Eastern Turkestan (Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China), has evolved by its own historical way. It has been influenced by all social and political perturbations in Soviet society from the first five-year plans up to perestroika. The mass repressions of the late 1930s adversely affected it. The best sons of the people like writers A. Mukhammadi, N. Israyilov, N.Niyazy, A.Mushrapilov, M.Iminov, M.Adilov and others were killed that time. 

Based on rich oral material, democratic and aesthetic traditions of Uighur classical literature as well as on literary traditions of other Turkic peoples, Uighur literature appeared as an important aspect of cultural development of the Uighurs. Fundamentals of Uighur classical literature were laid by Makhmut Qashqari (鈥淒ivan lugat at-turk鈥?鈥?鈥淒ictionary of the Turkic peoples鈥? and by Yusup Khas-Khajip Balasaghuni (鈥淨utatqu bilik鈥?鈥?鈥淏eneficial lore鈥?.

Makhmut Qashqari in his 鈥淒ivan lugat at-turk鈥?鈥?(鈥淒ictionary of the Turkic peoples鈥? shows many examples of Uighur folklore of the 11^th century.

Didactic poem 鈥淨utadgu bilik鈥?鈥?(鈥淏eneficial knowledge鈥? by Yusup Khas-Khajip Balasaghuni appeared as one of the earliest manuscripts of Uighur literature. In his work, poet, thinker, scholar Yusup Balasaguni discusses meaning and significance of human life; he determines responsibilities and behavioral norms within a society. Along with that, 鈥淨utadgu bilik鈥?gives plentiful of information on social, economic and political relations in the Qarakhanid state.

Doubtless, the works by Makhmut Qashqari and Yusup Khas-Khajip Balasaghuni had a great impact on evolution of all Turkic peoples.

Poem 鈥淜hibat-ul Khaqayiq鈥?by Akhmet Yugnaki written in the 12^th century also has great importance for development of Uighur literature. It is devoted to moral problems: issues on the struggle between the Goodness and the Evil; generosity and stinginess; modesty and conceit. This poem was widely spread and popular across Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Literary monument 鈥淨isass-ul-anbiya鈥?(鈥淪tory about the Saints鈥? by Nasreddin Rabguzi emerges as an important source for studying Uighur poetry of the 13^th century.

Approximately in the late 13^th 鈥?the beginning of the 14^th centuries in Turpan, an epic work 鈥淥guz-nama鈥?by unknown author came into the world and played an important role in development of Uighur literature.

According to Dr. Murat Khamrayev, evolution of Uighur literature could be divided into two large periods: the 10-15^th centuries and the16-19^th centuries. Direct descendant from Yusup Balasaguni, Makhut Qashqari and Akhmet Yugnaki, Uighur literature developed further along with literatures of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Development of Uighur literature was significantly influenced by a prominent Central Asian poet Alisher Navoi who, according to Mirza Duglat, 鈥渨as a descendant from Uighur bakhshas, i.e. Uighur secretaries-clerks who wrote some official papers鈥?SUP>11. Influence of this poet could be traced in works of Zaleli, Novbati, Khirkati, A.Nazari, B.Nazyma, M.Sairami and others.

A Qashqar poet Khirkati (1634-1724) and his works left a considerable trace in history of Uighur literature. In his poem 鈥淟ove and labor鈥?(1670) which expresses his outlook and attitude towards people, the author develops a theory that a man has all his/her virtues owing to labor.

Zaleli, a remarkable Uighur poet who lived in the 1^st half of the 18^th century, created a number of works, which are distinguished by high-level artistry and musicality and are imbued with righteous ideas of humanism and love to Motherland.

Novbati, a well-known poet and a contemporary of Zaleli, is a part of Uighur literature who glorified humanism and justice.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s Uighur literature was enriched by works of talented poets such as Shakrakhun, Arip, Khislat Qashqari. In the 1^st half of the 19^th century, development of the literature was influenced by works of such poets as Abduraim Nizari, Garibi, Ziyai, and Saburi.

In the second half of the 19^th century important political events took place and liberation movement of the Uighur people against the Chinese occupation affected evolution of Uighur literature at that time.

Poets such as Sadyr Palvan, Bilal Nazym, Seit-Mukhammet Kashi, Molla Shakir emerged in the literature of that period. Their works are imbued with profound sympathy with people. They exposed vices of their reality, and called to struggle for liberation from colonial and feudal oppression.¹² The awakening of ethnic self-consciousness of the Uighur people was reflected in their works.

Compositions of Bilal Nazym occupy a special place in Uighur literature. After completing his education at a medrese, Bilal Nazym collected and studied folklore of the Uighurs. Multi-talented poet composed music to his own verses and, playing musical instruments, sang them himself. Bilal Nazym together with his brother Jalaliddin participated in uprising in 1864-1867. Being a participant of the events, Bilal Nazym wrote a book 鈥淜itab-gazat-dar Chin鈥?(鈥淲ar against Chinese oppression鈥? in which, using religious terminology, he gives an account of history of Uighur national liberation movement against Qin occupants. In his work 鈥淐hanmoza Yusupkhan鈥?Bilal Nazym boldly unmasks greed and treachery of Muslim clergy, and his 鈥淣azugum khaqqida kissa鈥?(鈥淟egend about Nazugum鈥?, a deep innovatory composition, appears as one of the first prosa works of Uighur classical literature.

Bilal Nazym, a subtle lyric poet, glorifies pure love, which is based on deep feeling. According to Nazym, this noble feeling is given not to everyone, and one who has got it has to be faithful and true to it. In his work 鈥淕azaliyat鈥?he writes about this and about the meaning of life and being.

In the second half of the 19^th century, side by side with Bilal Nazym, Mussa-bin Isa Sayrami, an author of 鈥淭arikh 鈥?i Aminiya鈥?(鈥淗istory of Qashqar rulers鈥? appeared as a scholar and writer. In his work he describes history of struggle of the Uighur people against Jungar and Qin occupants, and history of independent Uighur states.

Poem 鈥淪harq shikeste鈥?(鈥淭he sad鈥檚 interpretation鈥? by Seid-Mukhammed Qashi, a contemporary of Bilal Nazym is devoted to a theme of resettlement of part of the Uighurs into Ili district in Semirechye (Seven River Land). Thanks to the resettlement part of the Uighurs was relieved of the Qin colonizers鈥?oppression and found new motherland. This theme runs all through the poem.

The best traditions of classical literature were followed by Uighur literature of the Soviet period, fundamentals of which were laid in 1920s-1930s. Theme of liberation of the people and theme of labor became dominant themes in literature. Writers revealed aspirations of the Uighurs to education and to overcoming of outdated views and ignorance. These issues were displayed most strikingly in works of Nazarkhoja Adbusemyatov.

Those years great attention was concentrated on laying foundations of literary language. Scholars-Uighurologists such as M.Malov, public activists such as A.Rozybakiyev, I.Tayirov, writers and literary critics 鈥?A.Mukhammadi, L.Ansari, K.Ashurov and others took part in the process. As a result of long and laborious work with direct participation of public, scientific organizations and media, the basis of the Uighur literary language was formed and its writing was systemized.¹³ By late 1920s the printing in the Uighur language was streamlined and central publishing houses in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan were printing books in Uighur.

New authors who glorified new life emerged in literature. Umar Mukhammadi, Izim Iskanderov, Nur Israyilov, Turdi Khasan, Adbulkhamit Kojamberdiyev were at the origins of new literature. Although poetry was a main genre in their works of that period, prose gradually was taking place in compositions of Umar Mukhammadi and Nur Israyilov. Publishing of M.Kharayev鈥檚 novel 鈥淒olqunlar arisida鈥?(鈥淎mong waves鈥? in 1934 was a great achievement for Uighur literature.

Those years Uighur drama was developing and the first plays by N.Abdusemyatov and A.Sadyrov 鈥淎narkhan鈥? by I.Sattarov鈥滸herip and Sanam鈥?came into the world.

Printing of newspapers and magazines in Uighur, establishing of various societies and clubs favored development of literature after the October revolution. Three months after the revolution 鈥淭he Uighur club鈥?was founded by initiative of A.Rozybakiyev in Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan). It unified newborn Uighur creative intelligentsia under its roof. Newspaper 鈥淨ambagal avazi鈥?(鈥淭he Voice of the poor鈥?, founded in 1921, printed the first literary works of young poets and prose writers.

First edition of literary, social and political brochure 鈥淏irin莽i q盲d盲m鈥?(鈥淭he first step鈥? published in 1924 was of particular importance for Uighur literature. It was to perpetuate the memory of Lenin and began with an article by A.Rozyakiyev about Lenin. The first part of the brochure included poems by A.Mukhammadi and Kh.Zakiri as well as critical essay by A.Rozybakiyev. The brochure also included materials on Uighur history, samples of folk-lore poetic works, and articles on education and culture. In 1930 Latip Ansiri published the first brochure of Uighur poets. In 1931 the second brochure came out and it included works by N.Israyilov, A.Mukhammadi, U.Mukhammadi, T.Khasanov, I.Iskanderov and others.

Along with the above-named, literary men such as M.Adilov, N.Mavayev, N.Niyazi, A.Khudaikulov, T.Shamiyev, S.Abdullin, M.Turdiyev and others influenced to a great extent development of Uighur literature in the first years after the revolution.

In 1936 in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan a small brochure 鈥淭an sazliri鈥?(鈥淒awn tunes鈥? was published. All the poems included in it were devoted to urgent problems of those days, and most of them have not forfeited their importance by now. Poems by T.Shamiyev bear similarities to poems by S.Seifullin and N.Niyazi.

Although works by novice poets S.Abdullin, A.Mirzayeva, M.Mushrapilov and some others did not feature highly artistic content and polished strophes, they were the first works in literature of new era for development of which their authors made every effort. Thanks to them, the first artistic translations, critical essays, prefaces to various editions came to the world. Collecting and publishing of folk-lore materials were emphasized in those years. S.Shakirzhanov, Z.Bashirov, L.Ansari, A.Khudaikulov, M.Mavayev, I.Iskanderov and others made a significant contribution in collecting, classifying of folk-lore genres and publishing their findings.

Period of formation of Uighur Soviet literature should be viewed indissoluble from historical and social development of society as well as development of literatures of peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. New mode of life derived from social transformations set writers important tasks. Literature of that and following periods was ideologized to the highest degree. Majority of literary works of that time developed a subject of glorifying the revolution, appeals, marches as well as praising advances in building of socialism.

One of characteristic feature of that time was a writer鈥檚 vision of new reality which led to transformation of edification traditions, to formation of realistic principles for depicting protagonist, and to development of various literature genres.

Umar Mukhammadi (1906-1931), one of the founders of Uighur Soviet literature, lived short but vivid and interesting life. Accepting the revolution with all his heart, he, like V.Mayakovsky, became its 鈥渕essenger, herald鈥? His works 鈥淕an nakh艧iliri鈥? 鈥淎rmanlirim鈥?(鈥淢y dreams鈥?, 鈥淥ylima鈥?(鈥淒on鈥檛 think鈥?, his stories 鈥淏atur zhilliri鈥?(鈥淗eroic years鈥?, 鈥淓臒ir k眉nl盲rd盲鈥?(鈥淚n hard days鈥?, 鈥?脰m盲r 枚ldi鈥?(鈥淥mar died鈥?, 鈥淵ana yanarm盲n鈥?(鈥淚鈥檒l return again鈥? are remarkable for their problem-facing orientation, high artistic content and profundity of thought. Works by U.Mukhammadi touch and agitate hearts of thousands of readers these days too, for creative works of great talent are immortal.

Poet Izim Iskanderov was at the origin of new literature. Author of over a dozen of poetic brochures, in his works Izim Iskanderov glorified heroism of Soviet people building new life, wrote with indignation and sorrow about heavy past of his people.

Nur Israyilov (1909-1937) takes a foreground among founders of Uighur Soviet literature. He wrote many verses, stories and a novel 鈥淨izil Tu臒 ni艧ani鈥?("Order of Red Flag").

Ismayil Sattarov (1916-1937) is well-known as an author of dozens of verses, poems such as 鈥淜hur ba臒 qizi鈥? 鈥淨or臒an鈥? and a play 鈥?SPAN lang=TR style="mso-ansi-language: TR">臑erip v盲 S盲n盲m鈥? He was a master of love lyrics. He praised love of new people, socialism builders who gripped whole wealth and grandeur of ideas which accompanied socialistic newness. Creative maturity of the poet occurred during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) against fascist Germany and his best verses were devoted to heroic Soviet Army, Communist Party and people.

Revived ancient literature in its content varied from classical one. Keeping its best traditions, at the same time, it diverged from glorifying the rose and the nightingale, depicting unrequited love sufferings, lamenting over fate and others. Realistic principles along with new genre and stylistic forms strengthened in literature of that time-period.

Due to repressions of the late 1930s, during war time in Uighur Soviet literature no any significant work was created. Only verses and publicistic articles by I.Khasanov, A.Akbarov, Kh.Turdi, M.Matbakiyev dedicated to homeland, heroism of Soviet people in front line and home front were published in regional newspapers. Same period writers I.Sattarov and K.Khasanov created a number of works which played an important role in further development of literature. These are verses by I.Sattarov 鈥淜azakhstan鈥? 鈥淔ield鈥? 鈥淢ountain鈥? 鈥淢y army鈥? 鈥淔rom the battlefield鈥? 鈥淭he day is coming鈥? 鈥淲e will win鈥? a poem by K.Khasanov 鈥淜enzheh鈥?

In the 1950s, literature is in the limelight of reviving Uighur culture in Kazakhstan. 鈥淚t is being reborn鈥? Sluggishness set after the mass repressions and war was interrupted by changes in state policy as well as by a surge of fresh creative power from Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. From the mid 1950s, literary criticism, which in the 1930s played more 鈥渃ensorial鈥?rather than literary role, became significant in development of literature.

Talented poet Iliya Bakhtaya, prose writers Khizmat Abdullin, Masimjan Zulpikarov, Khelil Khamrayev who was a master of verse techniques, Izim Bakhniyazov who was a subtle lyric poet, writers for children  Patigul Sabitova, Ziyadin Kakharov came into the after-war period literature.

That period, Uighur writers turned to complex genres such as novel and full-scale story.  Authors achieved significant results in development of poetry and dramatic art and their works testify for improved techniques in artistic reality depiction.

Khizmat Abdullin came into the world as a writer in the mid 1950s. His full-scale stories 鈥淕ulistan鈥? 鈥淢inarets keep silence鈥? novels 鈥淯nder Turpan skies鈥? 鈥淔ate鈥?and later on his historical novel 鈥淔iery hoop鈥?put him on a par with well-known writers of Kazakhstan who actively popularized idea of friendship between the Kazakhs and the Uighurs.

Jammaldin Bosakov, who worked fruitfully in prosa genre, wrote novels 鈥淲hirlpool鈥? 鈥淭eacher鈥? full-scale story 鈥淧eople鈥檚 singer鈥?and many stories.

Poets I.Bakhtaya, I.Izimov, Kh.Khamrayev, I.Bakhniyazov, Uchkun and others made great contribution in Uighur literature by their multifaceted works. The first works by Ilya Bakhtiya (Ilya Molotov) appeared in the mid 1950s. The first book of poems of the poet 鈥淒ostlar臒a so臒a鈥?(鈥淕ift to my friends鈥? was published in 1956. In 1958 a book 鈥淒ream鈥? in 1961 鈥?鈥淪pring鈥? in 1963 鈥?鈥淭yan-Shan dzhigit鈥? in 1966 鈥?鈥淭yan Shan poems鈥? in 1969 鈥?鈥淔lower and Prickle鈥? in 1978 鈥?鈥淚li valley鈥? and in 1981 鈥?鈥淟ife goes by鈥?were published. Most of the works of the poet were translated into Kazakh and Russian. Ilya Bakhtiya is also an author of a number of poetic books for children which are remarkable for their profound feeling of children鈥檚 psychological peculiarities.

Khelil Khamrayev is one of the talented poets of Uighur literature. His poetry is distinguished by high patriotism, optimistic attitude, and melodiousness. That is why his works were set to music. His poems 鈥淕ulyamkhan鈥? 鈥淒aughter of the sun鈥? 鈥淧easant鈥? 鈥淔eat鈥?represent different historical periods of the Uighurs, prompt readers to moral self-perfection, and give aesthetical delight.

Ziya Samadi, a people鈥檚 writer, takes an important place among Uighur writers who found their second homeland in Kazakhstan. Talent of the great master of word who now is well-known far beyond boundaries of the republic developed and strengthened in Kazakhstan. Works of the writer were translated into Russian, Kazakh and Uzbek.

In his novels 鈥淢ayimkhan鈥? 鈥淎khmet Afendi鈥? dilogy 鈥淢ystery of years鈥? in his full-scale stories 鈥淥ne cigarette鈥? 鈥淲ail of martyr鈥? 鈥淲hen apricot bloomed鈥? 鈥淕eni Batur鈥? in his plays 鈥淟ashman鈥? 鈥淚parkhan鈥? in his drama 鈥淏lood stain鈥? in his screen story 鈥淥n Ili river bank鈥?and many other works Ziya Samadi gives large-scale pictures of historical past of the Uighur people. The main theme of the writer鈥檚 works is the national liberation struggle of the Uighurs against Qin (Chinese) invaders. It is important to the writer to represent historical truth which he achieves through knowledge and historical intuition. Works of Ziya Samadi contribute in augmenting the people鈥檚 moral, and cultural wealth as well as strengthening civil consciousness.

Artistic talent of the author allowed him to rise in analysis of moral, patriotic motive of his protagonists to common humanistic ideals what cultivates in reader not only feeling of personal connection but also a sense of social and civil responsibility for everything what happens in life. That is why, works of Ziya Samadi are so beloved by people. That is why Asanali Ashimov, a well-known Kazakh actor and producer, People鈥檚 Artist of the USSR, made a screen version of the author鈥檚 novel 鈥淢ayimkhan鈥? His movie 鈥淵ear of the Dragon鈥?based on Ziya Samadi鈥檚 novel has been played in movie theaters for 15 years.

Today Uighur literature of Kazakhstan is represented by dozens of prosa writers and poets, many of whom are members of the Kazakhstan Writers鈥?Union. They are: M.Zulpikarov, E.Ilyas, P.Sabitova, T.Takhtamov, K.Asamdinov, Sh.Shavayev, A.Ashirov, D.Yasenov (Uchkun), S.Mamatkulov, R.Roziyev, I.Jalilov, A.Dulyatov, I.Ushurov, Zh.Rozakhunov, A.Izimov, A.Ganiyev, M.Khamrayev, A.Kutlukov, A.Mutalip, M.Merimov, A.Sadyrov, G.Autova, N.Akhmetov, T.Nurakhunov, A.Israpilov and many others.

Keeping centuries-old traditions of Uighur literature, writers focus their attention on showing patriotic feat of the people as a whole as well as individuals in the liberation struggle. They  reveal and affirm political, moral ideals of the Uighur people. Along with this, writers familiarize themselves with today鈥檚 reality. Changes in society gave birth to a number of works filled with profound philosophical thought about cultural and moral values. Among them there are works of D.Yasenov, S.Mamatkulov, A.Dulyatov, R.Roziyev and I.Ushurov.

Uighur literature, one of the most ancient Turkic literatures, had an opportunity for further qualitative development in the USSR. Various poetic schools and currents, multifaceted and diverse creative styles appeared in Uighur literature what leads to general evolution and bloom of national culture of the Uighurs. 

U I G H U R   C R A F T S

Eastern Turkestan, the ancient fatherland of the Uighurs, is boundless territory of Takla-Makan desert dotted with inhabited oases. From time immemorial, oases of Khotan, Yarkend, Qashqar, Turpan, Qarashar, Kuchar, Miran and later Ghulja were the largest and most significant historical and cultural centers where crafts developed vigorously. 

Every town was renowned for certain crafts practiced in it. Qashqar was known for metal-working, fabric dressing, its felt, carpets, musical instruments, pottery, and embroidery. Khotan was and is a renowned center of carpet-making and sericulture. Yarkend was famed for exquisite metal-working, felt product and carpets. Aqsu was famous for cotton fabric, currying and felt. 

Ancient Uighur applied art includes decorative metal-working: blacksmith's work, manufacturing of utensils, jewelry. Traditional set of metal utensils of the Uighurs includes various washing sets; medicinal extracts ware, kettles, samovars, trays, bowls, and others. Among them one can find distinctively utilitarian items as well as exquisite ones. 

Domestic appliances have handy shapes and reserved tactical d茅cor. Decorative goods are small sized, gracefully shaped and covered with fine open-work. Domestic appliances were mainly produced of copper whereas decorative ones used brass and silver. Brass often was silvered or adorned with silverware, i.e. silver lockets. 

Jeweler鈥檚 art occupies an important place among crafts. Jewelry was popular among Uighur women as well as men at all times. Jeweller's favorite metal was gold and silver skillfully amplified with mountings of precious and semi-precious stones such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies, pearls, corals, amethyst, garnet, turquoise, nacre and so forth. Jeweler鈥檚 techniques were complex and multifarious. Uighur jewelry can be divided into the following: head, neck, shoulder and breast wares; hand adornments which form an original traditional set. 

The Uighurs achieved mastery in manufacturing woven and felted carpet goods. Uighur felt and knot woolen carpets were well-known and broadly exported far away from Eastern Turkestan. In the world market Uighur carpets were valued as Persian ones²².  Town of Khotan occupied a special place in carpet manufacture. In this oasis many a settlement manufactured woven goods and in towns there were numerous larger carpet workshops. 

Uighur carpets were notable for their variety in fancy decoration with complex compositions of geometric; geometrized and plant; and geometrized and zoomorphic pattern. Uighur carpet-makers dyed yarn with extracts from plant roots, which did not fade if exposed to sun or water; they rather became richer in time²³. More than a dozen of colors were combined in a carpet. However, this multicolor did not produce excessive motley. The colors harmonically merged in single spectrum.  

Embroidery is one of ancient kinds of applied arts. Mainly it is regarded as part of household manufacture. In Uighur households women embroidered to meet demand of their families. Young girls prepared their wedding dowry, significant part of which comprised embroidery. Embroidery was used in drapes, covers, pillow-covers, pillow-cases, table clothes, decorative and prayer rugs, as well as clothes. Traditional embroidery pattern is plant, favorite element of which is flower motives reproduced without any stylization. Color spectrum of Uighur embroidery is formed by contiguous or contrast hues. 

Pottery is a traditional kind of Uighur artistic craftsmanship. Potters produced coating slabs and tiles, household and decorative crockery, lamps, and toys. Polished in centuries various shapes of Uighur pottery are of particular artistic interest. Among widely prevalent there are amphora-shaped vessels, pitchers, dishes and bowls. Uighur potters broadly used glaze for dish coating. 

So called 鈥渃hilling vessels鈥?used for keeping perishable products were popular among the Uighurs. They were coated with glaze for two thirds from the mouth because they were buried in the ground for one third. They believed that glaze prevents chill from penetration. 

Along with conventional clay vessels, so called 鈥渟and vessels鈥?which comprised considerable amount of sand could be found in usage by the Uighurs. Surface of such crockery is rough, and usually painted in black. 

 Architecture. In Eastern Turkestan there are many big and small mosques, medreses, and mausoleum. Different building materials were used, and various artistic styles are employed in architecture. Ceilings, fretted columns, eaves, doors and tracery gates of the buildings amaze with their exquisite decoration and multicolor of their frescos. With adoption of Islam in the 10^th century, traditional architecture, keeping its originality, evolved in the course of architecture of Muslim Orient. 

Wood-carving as a genre of decoration was used broadly by the Uighurs in furniture, utensils and toy making. Wooden furniture did not play a visible role in the interior of Uighur as well as other Oriental peoples鈥?household. The Uighurs preferred carpets, rugs and felt. Nevertheless they had a certain set of wooden furniture from time immemorial. They are trunks, low tables, cradles, coffers and bins for foodstuffs. Wooden utensils included dishes, bowls, bred-plates, spoons, chopsticks, spoon and chopsticks cases.

 Making of musical instrument occupies one of the most important places in Uighur art wood carving. Uighur musical instruments are notable for their diversity and lofty sound and decorative characteristics. Among Uighur musical instruments the following are wide spread:

• stringed musical instruments played by plucking 鈥?dutar, tambir, ravap;

• bow musical instruments 鈥?satar, ghijak;

• percussions 鈥揹ap, tevilvaz, naghra;

• wind instruments 鈥?nay, surnay, karnay, and yanchin or chan 鈥?an instrument resembling cymbals;

Musical instruments listed above were prevalent throughout the whole Eastern Turkestan and had only insignificant local distinctions. Most conspicuous distinctive traits are seen in instruments of the Southern (Qashqar) and the Northern (Ghulja) regions of the country. People call them Qashqar and Ili instruments. 

Yarkend and Aqsu were renowned for currying. The leather was used for making high quality shoes, belts, and harness. Smart shoes were made of color leather: red, green, and brown. In shoes d茅cor masters widely used appliqu茅鈥?work, stamping, and embroidery. 

Leather belts were part and parcel of Uighur man dress. They were embellished with figured silver plates covered with engraved, embossed and filigree decoration; insets of semi-precious stones. Polychrome enamel and gilding were also used in belt decoration. 

Decorative work was broadly applied to horse harness and saddles by Uighur craftsmen. Uighur saddles have had the same prevalent shape even up to this day: narrow pommel and wide oval rear arch. Frame of saddle was upholstered with leather and embellished with decorative metal plates, or thoroughly polished, burnished and covered with multicolor painting.  

Items made of gourd are wide-spread among the Uighurs. Various forms of gourd are converted to different dishes for water and tea; scoops, snuff-boxes, toys and others. Surface of items is usually polished and dyed in thick solution of tea. In Eastern Turkestan in the past there were skilful masters who produced highly artistic works from gourd.

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22. Mukanov, S. Steps of a giant., Alma-Ata, 1958, p.253.

23. Felkerzam, A. Ancient carpets of Central Asia // Old years, 1914, October-December.

u I G H U R   C u s t o m s   a n d   t r a d i t i o n s 

The Uighurs have original and interesting rites and customs that in many respects have preserved traditional elements up to this day. We will describe rites related to the following: the birth, upbringing of children, wedding, and funerals.

1. Wedding. 

Wedding is the brightest celebration of the Uighurs. It has importance not only for individuals, but also for society, since the marriage means the emergence of a new family in society. 

Wedding ceremony consists of three stages - pre-wedding, wedding and post-wedding. 

As a rule, a ritual of asking in marriage precedes the wedding.  Father of the groom along with other senior relatives and respected men, whom it is difficult to give up to, come forward as the matchmakers. 

Having arrived in the house of the bride, the matchmakers inform the households of the purpose of their visit. Usually, the parents do not give their consent immediately. After persuasions, and sometimes, in the following visit, the matchmakers finally come to consent. The obligatory condition is the approval of the marriage on the part of the bride’s close relatives. Mostly, it bears formal character, in a kind of homage to them. 

The large "toy" - festivity is preceded by the “tatliq çai “ - the sweet tea ceremony, (sometimes the  “maqul çeji” - the consent tea ceremony, the “tazym çeji”, “kiçik çai” – the small tea ceremony), in which gifts are presented to the bride’s parents for the consent, and the parties arrange conditions and terms of "toy", and that is of specially importance, set the "seliq" – so-called redemption for the bride. 

The "seliq" consists of gifts to the bride, her parents and relatives. It also includes the "aniliq" - gifts from the groom to the bride’s mother, as gratitude for her taking care about her daughter. The “seliq” seem to replace bride-price, existence of which in antiquity is reflected in the Chinese annals... » ²⁴. 

Besides the gifts, the "seliq” covers all expenses associated with the wedding festivities in the bride parents’ house. Amount and quality of the "seliq" always were different and were defined by well-being of the groom. 

At present, large role in social life of Uighur community belongs to “zhigit beĹźi” – the head of the men. It is an elective position, to which the assembly of a community appoints a respected man who perfectly knows all rites and traditions and possesses necessary managerial skills. 

In many communities, in the presence of the matchmakers, “zhigit beĹźi” announces amount of the “seliq” set by the parties, and can, under some circumstances, solve certain arguable questions in favor of the groom and bride. 

Even nowadays, sometimes one can observe an old form of marriage by elopement of the bride – the “qyz apçeqış”. This phenomenon takes place when the bride’s parents would not give their consent for marriage. However, as frequently it happens in life, the parents soon after their daughter’s elopement would come to consent and celebrate wedding. 

The wedding lasts three days. The day before wedding the groom’s party delivers foodstuffs for festivities in the bride’s house – the “mal-gÄ‚Ä˝rüç" – cattle-rice. Along with foodstuffs they bring a bull-calf, with a white kerchief tied round his horns. The bride should have the same kerchief on the wedding day. 

During the day the groom’s relatives are shown around in the bride’s house and hand over the brought foodstuffs. Close relatives and friends are invited in the house of the groom and the bride to cut carrots - the “sävzä qaläm” for a dish called “polo” – pilaf. The festivity and ceremony of the parties’ introduction – the “täg malisi” take place in the evening. There is an interesting detail that at the beginning of the festivity the bride’s relatives lay down the table for their new relatives, and later on the groom’s relatives assume the rights of the hosts and attend to the bride’s party. 

The day before the wedding the bride’s girlfriend and her mother come to the bride’s parents. They bring two trays of sweets and take the bride to their home on the bride’s parents’ consent. In their house in the wedding day they have hen party – the “qiz mälisi”. The groom has a bachelor party in his friend’s house. 

Morning of the wedding day, the guests arrive, first men, and then - women. Music, dances and plentiful feast accompany the wedding. 

After the festivity has ended the groom’s party begins a ceremony of the dowry chest opening – the “sanduq eçiş”. Contents of the chest including groom’s dowry and gifts from his relatives are shown to the guests. Afterwards contents of the bride’s chest are shown. On the part of the bride, a highly respected woman appointed for the show displays her dowry. After the ceremony, the gifts and chests with contents are handed over to the groom’s mother. 

The crucial moment of any wedding is the ceremony of wedding – the "neka". Despite that in the earlier days, the presence of the bride in the ceremony was not necessary, at present, both the groom and the bride take part in it. Therefore, the ceremony of neka is preceded by the bride pricing of the bride from her girlfriend’s house by the groom’s friends with the help of "yanga", the wife of the groom’s brother or uncle, most glib and eloquent woman. 

The bride and groom are taken into the bride’s house, where in the presence of the proxies, the Muslim wedding - neka takes place. Mullah carries out the neka. The bride and groom are given to drink from a bowl with mixed water, salt, bread and sugar. The salt is a symbol of strength of their feelings. Sugar is a symbol of sweet life, the bread - welfare. That who has eaten up bread first, believed to be ruling their family. 

After the neka, the bride is taken into the groom’s house. She says good-bye to her parents and the latter bless her for the family life. 

The brightest moment of the wedding ceremony is the kindling of a campfire in front of the groom’s house before new wife enters the house of her spouse. Newly-weds, hand in hand, go around the fire thrice. The purging by fire means to protect from adversity and bring happiness to the new family. The rite is similar to the ancient rite of many Turkic nomads to walk a newly wife around the fire for three times in the yurt of her husband. The fire as the aversive force is used by many peoples of Central Asia. 

The day after the wedding festivities, the groom’s parents receive the new wife’s relatives and friends. The custom has different names. Some call it “uzaĹźqa", the others - "çilaq". The purpose of it is to get closer for the relatives of the newly wedded. 

The young husband with his friends visits his wife’s senior relatives – the “salamĂ„Ĺşa keliş”. The latter give him presents and things necessary in use. 

There is another interesting traditional custom, which exists nowadays. It is the visiting of the new wife’s parents by the newly weds on the first Friday after the wedding. The Uighurs have been observing this custom from time immemorial. After the wedding the young married woman visited her mother every Friday. This day the mother combed the daughter’s hair and braided it. The roots of the tradition could be traced to matrilocality. 

2. Birth of a child

The birth of a child is one of the most important moments in the life of a family. Nowadays, the Uighurs observe the following traditions, related to the birth and upbringing of a child such as the birth, the giving the name, ceremonial putting of a child into a cradle – the “böşük toy”, forty days – the “qiriq sÄ‚Ä˝yi”, boy circumcision – the “sÄ‚Ä˝nnät toy” and others. 

Due to the custom, the woman gives birth for the first time in the house of her mother. This custom also has the matrilocal roots. 20-30 days prior to the delivery the mother of the woman in childbirth accompanied by some relatives and friends comes into the house of her son-in-law and asks him to let his wife to go to her house – the “tiläp eliş”. Nowadays, after a woman has given the birth at the hospital, she and her child are taken to her mother’s house right from the hospital. 

After delivery, mother of woman who recently gave birth takes care of the child and her daughter. It is believed, that newborn and his/her mother are subjects to the evil forces during the first forty days and consequently they have to be protected. In general, all rites related to motherhood and childhood, pursue one object, that is to keep a baby alive. 

The access to the new mother is limited during the 40-day period. On the 12th day the baby is being given name. The relatives of the husband and mullah are invited for the event. During this period other women come to the house and bring gifts and meal to help the hostess in her care for the newborn and his/her mother. 

On the 40th day, the child bathing (the qiriq suyi) takes place. A pinch of salt, ädräsman, half a lump of sugar, and coins are added in a saucepan. Then all present add water in the saucepan by two wooden spoons. Every woman participating in the ceremony should make her wish for the baby. In this water, after warming it up, the child is bathed. After he/she has been bathed his/her hair and nails are cut for the first time. 

The birth of following children and their “qiriq suyi” takes place in the house of the child’s father. 

In the fixed day after the “qiriq suyi”, parents of the husband come into the house of the young mother’s parents and bring gifts and foodstuffs for the “böşük toy” - ceremonial laying of the child in a cradle. Female relatives and friends are invited for the ceremony. Usually, the mother of the young mother covers the expenses associated with this rite. Besides, she makes gifts for the daughter and dowry for the newborn. This day the young mother’s sister or "yanga", who help look after the child during the period, receives many gifts. 

Nowadays, a custom called “çuĹźav toyı” is being restored to life in many families. As soon as a child starts walking, his legs are being hobbled. A respected older woman cuts the hobble. It is believed, that after this the child will not fall or stumble. The gathered for the rite people express their glee. The merrymaking and festivities for the women and children accompany the rite. 

The boy circumcision, the “sunnät toy” is organized in a solemn way. Usually, boys of the age of 5-7 go through circumcision. A big celebration is organized only for the first son. As a rule, it is the first celebration organized by the young father, an original examination for maturity. 

Usually hero of the occasion himself invites his relatives and friends to this holiday. In the earlier days, the boy with a relative visited all people he wanted to invite. In a village he visited literally every house, where he was given presents, sweets and kerchiefs. He would come back home all covered with the kerchiefs. At present, the invitation ceremony is much more simple. 

A mullah carries out the circumcision in a separate room. The boy is being diverted by gifts and money so that he does not have fear for the circumcision. The gathered people celebrate the holiday in other rooms with glee, music, dances and singing. 

The "mäşräp" is an ancient Uighur custom, which could be interpreted as the evening of rest. The series of it begins in the late autumn and ends in springtime.  Usually, men of the same age who live in the same region or village and have common interests gather for the "mäşräp". The participants of such gatherings are called “ottuz oĂ„Ĺşul” - thirty guys. 

The "mäşräp" is a school of ethical and aesthetic education. It reveals people who possess musical or poetic talents. The "mäşräp" is also a school of discipline and responsibility to the collective. The first thing participants of the gathering do is the election of the chairman  - "zhigit beĹźi", who has the right to appoint the musician, dancer, and cook. Then they elect the judge - "qazi" who can penalize an offender-"mäşräp" member. 

Such gatherings are accompanied by the singing of songs, performing muqams, and common dancing. During the "mäşräp" participants not only relax and have fun, but they can obtain a lot of new and useful information from conversations and discussions about all areas of life. Perhaps, that’s why the Uighurs call an ignorant man "mäşräp körmigän"  (that who has not seen the "mäşräp"). The "mäşräp" is also a circle of friends who are always ready to help in joy and trouble. Sometimes, participants of the same "mäşräp" are closer to each other than the relatives. 

3. Funerals 

Uighur funerals concern not only the family of the deceased, but rather the community in which he/she lived. The funerals are organized and controlled by the “zhigit beĹźi”, an elected chairman of the community. 

The funerals are arranged with the special respect for the deceased. The deceased is buried on the second day after the death. The households immediately inform relatives and acquaintances, who arrive right away at the house of the deceased. 

During the funerals the women wear white kerchiefs around their heads. The men tie white girdles around their waists as a token of mourning. In the next rooms to that one with the body, the women settle down and mourn over the deceased. The men meet the arriving condolers and cry out load in the courtyard or in front of the house 

Before the burial the body undergoes the procedure of washing. Four people out of the relatives and volunteers are appointed for it. The washing is considered a blessed deed, therefore volunteers could be always found. A relative from the fatherly line is always at the head of the deceased. He or she directs the others, and pours water from a jug. The others are appointed for different parts of the body, the top is washed by one, the middle - by the second, and the bottom – by the third. After the burial the washers receive some belongings, a headgear, shirt and footwear of the deceased to keep memory about him/her. 

After the washing, people are allowed to make their farewell to the deceased whose face is uncovered. After that the body is dressed in a white shirt and trousers or a gown that is sewn the day before, and shrouded in a white fabric called "kepin". 

After the farewell, the body is taken out of the house on the "taout" (a stretcher with a bow-shaped fixture). The "taout" is placed outside the house, and all gathered do the “namaz” – a prayer. After the prayer has been done, the young men lift up the "taout" and take it to the cemetery, replacing one another as they get tired. The women remain at home. 

Young men start digging the grave in the morning. The Uighurs dig the graves with an internal niche on its east side, a little bit higher than the bottom. The body is being laid in the niche, so that the head is slightly turned westward. Then the entrance to the niche is laid by bricks and the grave is covered with ground. 

The memorial services are held on the third, seventh, fortieth days and a year later. Meals are not cooked in the house of the deceased before the three-day memorial service. It is believed, that the soul of the deceased hovers around the house for the first three days and can take offence – “ärva körilidu”. The relatives, friends, and neighbors bring the food in this period. The immediate relatives of the deceased have no any duties and obligations prior to the seven-day memorial service. They are preoccupied with the mourning over their loss. The remote relatives, other kin and friends take up all the duties and obligations for organizing and arranging the funerals and memorial services. Every community has utensils bought for community dues. They also have the "taout", tables, benches, shovels and all the necessary for fulfillment of the rite. 

The mourning is lifted up from the relatives on the seven-day memorial service. The men remove the girdles from their waists and the women remove kerchiefs from their heads. Their friends and relatives take them to their places and cook the memorial dinner in their houses. Friends from the "mäşräp" actively participate in the funerals during those days. 

The light is lit for forty days in the house of the deceased in memory of him/her. Every night relatives gather in this house, pray and cook memorial round cakes - "zhit". The women bring meals for the immediate relatives of the deceased during forty days. 

During the 1-year memorial service, the relatives receive gifts -"qarliq” and the mourning is lifted up from them. 

The funeral rites have been preserved well throughout the centuries. They are most conservative rites. The wedding rites and the rites related to upbringing of children have changed a bit. Even though the Uighurs of different regions might have slightly different procedures, the fundamentals of the rites are the same.

U I G H U R   M U S I C

To Listen To Uighur Music Click Here

Music and dance occupy a significant place in life of the Uighurs. There are no holidays, parties and wedding festivities without music and dances. Uighur traditional songs are remarkable for their melodious originality. They can be heard both in solo, and in choral singing. Singing is accompanied by music, which leads theme and variations of a song and emphasizes the song rhythm. While singing performers swing back and forth in tune of songs, and sometimes they clap in time with the music. 

Nowadays, certain parts of Twelve Uighur Muqams, a unique creation of musical folklore, are widely popular. Folk songs and muqams are performed to the accompaniment of folk instruments, which the Uighurs have in a great number. Some of them are: a dutar is a string instrument with an oval barrel and a long neck, which has from 8 to 15 movable frets; a tambir is a stringed musical instrument played by plucking, a sitar is a lute with 3 metal strings; a stringed instrument with 9 strings; a 3-stringed and a 5-stringed ravap; 48-stringed dulcimer; a qalun – an instrument with 18 pairs of strings; a gidjak with 4 to 10 strings. Among percussion instruments there are: a dap or shaldap – a tambourine; a big drum - dumbak; a small drum – nagra; a kettke-drum – tevilvaz and brazen cymbals. Wind instrument include a nyay – a reed flute; a surnyay – a pear-tree clarinet; a carnay – a long instrument made of a brazen pipe. 

Music is accompanied by dance. Uighur dances are very graceful and vigorous. Mastery of Uighur dancers was valued so high that they were invited by emperors of Tang Dinasty to participate in special festivities. 

At present there are no Uighur festivities without dance. The Uighurs have a great number of genre dances, which are: holiday dances, hunters’ dances, lovers’ dances, farmers’ dances and others. 

There is a number of Uighur Soviet composers, conductors and musicians. Kuddus Kuzhamyarov is one of the outstanding Uighur Soviet composers of the 20^th century. A son of a Uighur farmer, K. Kuzhamyarov became a People’s artist of the USSR and the USSR State Prize laureate. The composer’s works include opera “Nazugum”, “Golden Mountains”, “Sadyr Palvan”, a ballet “Chintomur Batur” and numerous symphonies. Composers I.Masimov, I.Isayev, N.Kibirov and S.Kibirova made a significant contribution in development of Uighur music. 

A People’s artist of the USSR Gaziz Dugashev is well-known in musical world. He was a conductor of Kazakh Academic Theater of Opera and Ballet named after Abay. He also conducted in Bolshoy Theater of the USSR. 

Tamara Alibakiyeva, Doctor of Arts, professor of Alma-Ata Coservatoire named after Kurmangazy plays an important role in musicology. She made an invaluable contribution in research of cycle of “Twelve Uighur Muqams” as well as song folklore of the Uighurs. Having gathered rich folklore material, Tamara Alibakiyeva was the first to classify genres of Uighur music folklore. Having “Twelve Uighur Muqams” - a masterpiece, a pearl of Uighur folklore, set to music, the musicologist implemented a historical and theoretical analysis of the cycle and derived mode and intonation system of Medieval Uighur muqam. Based on comparative analysis of Uighur professional music folklore and musical professional genres of various medieval cultures, Tamara Alibakiyeva defined mutual influence between ancient music civilizations. More than 300 of her books and articles devoted to history of Uighur musical culture were published in different encyclopedic, scientific and scholar editions. Among them are “Uighur Historical Songs”, “Twelve Uighur Muqams”, “Uighur Wedding Songs”, “Uighur Funeral Songs” and others. Taking part in international musicological conferences, symposia, seminars and concerts, Tamara Alibakiyeva has been vigorously popularizing Uighur art on international stage over 40 years. She is well-known in the USA, Canada, countries of Europe and Asia. 

Opening of Uighur Theater²¹ in 1934 was one of the remarkable events in cultural life of the Uighurs in Kazakhstan. Uighur theater art developed under ponderable influence of such art masters as: People’s artist of Kazakhstan M.Semyatova, A.Shamiyeva, G.Jalilov, R.Ilakhunova, M.Bakiyev, S.Sattarova, N.Mametova, Z.Akbarova, G.Raziyeva, K.Abdrasulov, T.Baklhtybayev; Honored artists A.Akbarov, Zh.Asimov, M.Zaynaudinov, R.Tokhtanova, A.Sopiyev, Kh.Iliyeva, R.Marupova, A.Musayeva, S.Akbarova, K.Zakirov, M.Rakhmanova.   

U I G H U R    C U I S I N E 

Uighur cuisine is an original memorial to the culture of the people. It synthesizes influences of the West and East, antiquity and the present, great skill, imagination, beauty and harmony of taste. Here we’d like to introduce some of the meals that are the most popular among the Uighurs.  

Cold dishes could be divided into two kinds: dishes of various raw vegetables and cold dishes of boiled and fried vegetables.

Raw vegetables (radish, tomatoes, cucumbers, pepper, string bean, bean sprouts, radish, cabbage, carrots, etc.) are ingredients of cold salads dressed with vinegar, hot oil, pepper and various spices. Ingredients of salads from boiled and fried vegetables are the same vegetables after heat-treating, and also meat, rice starch, and eggs.

"Gül’ Tavaq” - a flower dish - occupies a special place among cold dishes. This dish is a mix prepared from various vegetables, meat, and spices. Even though ingredients readily available determine variety of kinds of this dish, it is always a good-looking dish of chopped vegetables, fried and boiled and chopped meat. As a whole, the dish looks as a flower that consists of multi-colored petals.

First course dishes popular among the Uighurs are:

• "Shova" – various broths and soups with rice and vegetables;

• “SÄ‚Ä˝yuqash”, soups with noodles, of two kinds: broth and with fried sauce.

The Uighurs call these dishes “meal of the tired”, “meal – rest”. Such soups are seasoned with fresh herbs or roots. Among them:

• “Qalighaç tili” - noodles in the form of a swallow’s tongue,

• “Üzmä sÄ‚Ä˝yuqash” – a soup - tear,

• “Yeip Uzup Tashlash” – a soup - tear form rolled out dough,

• "Halivash" – a soup with dough cut by large squares,

• “Omach" – a soup with grated dough.

Dough for soups can be prepared from different kinds of flour - barley, rice, wheat, and corn. The latter dish is described in “Divanu Lughat-It Türk” by Mahmut Qashqari, a prominent Uighur scholar of the 11^th century, and almost has no analogues in other peoples’ cuisine. "Omach" has varieties, one of which is "Sumulyak" that is served as a funeral and memorial repast.

“Längmän” is the most favorite and popular dish of the Uighur cuisine. It includes long noodles prepared from thin strings of dough stretched from thick wisps served with a sauce. Every Uighur meal has its symbolism. This meal is referred to as a dish of love. Love should last long as the noodles are. The Uighurs prepare “längmän” of four kinds depending on seasons. In spring the sauce is prepared from spring onions, jusäy sprouts, celery and radish. In summer, cucumbers, garlic sprouts, usun, short and long kidney bean, tomatoes, green and red pepper, eggplants, garlic, onions and spring onions are added to the sauce. In autumn, the sauce includes carrots, kohlrabi, radish and turnip. In winter the sauce is prepared from dried and pickled vegetables. Also there are different kinds of " längmän", which vary by way of cooking, thickness of noodles, kind of a flour, etc. 

"Manty" in dish symbolism relate to a dish of the dzhigits (brave men).  "Manty" are cooked on steam in a special cookware, which consists of sieves inserted one into another and called "qasqan”, or a flat vessel, weaved from cane - "jimbil". “Manty”, as well as ravioli - "chöşürä", are prepared from rolled out dough with a stuffing. The dish could be prepared in a variety of ways, with different kind of dough and ingredients of a stuffing. Douhg used for manty could be both leavened and unleavened. The stuffing also could vary including gourd, meat, onions, jÄ‚Ä˝säy, fig, clover, spring onions, quince, vegetables, and etc. 

"Çöşürä" – (ravioli) are cooked for the just married the next day after the marriage and symbolizes a wish to have many kids and prosper. " Çöşürä " could be served as first course as well as second course dish.

The Uighurs frequently cook “polo” - pilaf. In general, this dish is the meal of guests. For a plenty of people, “polo” is cooked by “aĹźpäz”, specially invited cook who takes care of preparing “polo” on weddings or commemoration services. Cooking “polo” requires hefty skills. Ingredients are rice, meat, carrots and onions. Pretty often “polo” is dressed with garlic or raisin. 

"Samsa" is one of the most honored ancient Uighur dishes. It is a patty filled with ground meat and onions, gourd, vegetables and fruits. “Samsa” is cooked in “tono” – cone-shaped oven for baking bread or in a cauldron. Dough for “samsa” is kneaded depending on where it would be cooked. For example, for “tono samsa” dough is kneaded salty and stiff, for “samsa” cooked in a cauldron, dough could be flabby and not stiff, or salty and yeasty. 

"Pörä" - some kind of a fried meat pie, filled with herbs, jÄ‚Ä˝säy, clover, wheat sprouts, dill, cabbage, and coriander. The filling could be the chopped meat and onions. 

“Göş nan” - meat bread – patties filled with meat and onions and baked in a cauldron. 

“Olouh nan” - steam bread – a roll prepared with carrots, gourd, jÄ‚Ä˝säy, spring onions, etc. 

Cooking of "öpkä-esip" - stuffed lights is the art itself. While slaughtering a sheep, lamb or calf, a butcher tries not to damage the lungs. Integrity of the lungs is checked by inflating them. The stuffing is prepared from the liquid dough, milk, eggs and oil, and poured through a sieve into the lungs. Then they are tied up and submersed into boiling water. 

The Uighurs make bread from wheat flour, sometimes, from corn flour. Bread is usually baked in “tono” – big ovens, from leavened or yeasty dough in form of pita: large and thin – “çong nan”, small and thick - "toĂ„Ĺşaç". In a cauldron the Uighurs bake short puff pitas -“qatlima” from dough made on oil and cream as well as thin pancakes - "poĹźqal". On holidays people make various short pastries in a cauldron, in particular, "sangza". Bread baked in “tono” is considered the most nutritious, because it absorbs heat of fire. There are more than 40 (forty) ways of making bread in Uighur cuisine. 

Tea occupies an important place in a diet of the Uighurs. Since the Silk Road passed through Uighur territories, tea has been known to them for considerable period of time. The Uighurs make tea in different ways and have their own tea rituals.

The Uighurs of the Semirechye (Seven River region) make tea with salt and milk – “atkän çay”. Cream, sour cream, and butter are added to it. It is served in a big bowls – “apqur çinä”. This kind of tea is very nourishing and usually the Uighurs drink it for breakfast. After rich and plentiful meal, usually black tea  - “syn çay” - and sweets are served. The Uighurs from Ferghana (Uzbekistan) prefer green tea – “kök çay”. 

Uighur cuisine is popular across Central Asia, and one can find Uighur restaurant in many towns and villages.